Journaling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Journaling - Essay Example daily behaviors about how to realize and reach a middle ground to be able to be an effective teacher-journalist in class in a class which shows affection to learning. Wages are what a worker gets from money or solid appreciation of their work. This differs according to education and constitution the worker belongs to and works in. It is negotiable and thus the worker could offer more for his working time the more the appreciated he is and the effect of such behavior is the giving efficiently into the work done. If improperly done, the law has the right on the side of the customer and employer to cut down the wages until proven better in the way of handling the work(referring to the worker)if the worker does not efficiently prove him or herself worthy of the wages they get they are either fired or demoted or given a lesser salary or wages than the primary wages they have been given before the time of the inefficiency. The fact that workers could be differentiated among due to racial or religious backgrounds is uncontroversial but is not the purpose of this essay unless referred t o later on when wanted. When a worker deals with the surrounding environment they are affected upon and affect upon and this is directly proportional or inversely proportional according to the manner that the environment is dealt with and how the worker is dealt with. The main thing is that the more appreciated the environment is to the worker the more efficient the worker works and thus the increase of productivity and quality and quantity of the product. But is the wages a measure of such appreciation? sometimes ,if not under constrictions of strict law rules or employers who employ their relatives and friends who could not efficiently work in their positions, the wages to a great sect, if not most of the sect, deal with wages as being the best thing to measure the way that performance in such field by the worker has been progressing. The worker applies his methods of working and of

Comparing coverage in two different Newspapers Essay Example for Free

Comparing coverage in two different Newspapers Essay The incident covered in the two articles I have studied was a train fire in the Austrian ski resort of Kaprun on Saturday 11th November 2000. The first article I looked at was in the tabloid paper the Sunday Express. The second article I looked at was in the broadsheet paper the Observer. The two articles were very similar but had some differences. Both the articles emphasised that British people were among those that had died. The Sunday Express said Britons among 170 victims and The Observer said Britons among 170 dead The Observer also stated that children died Children among victims. Although both articles covered the same subject and seemed to emphasise the greatness of the tragedy, they had different approaches, The Sunday Express article was sensationalist and over emotive inferno as it tore through carriages The Observers article was a calmer and more concise report and, within a few minutes, almost everyone on board was dead. The articles both contained similar factual information. In the Article in the Sunday Express, facts were intertwined with opinions and emotive language. engulfing tourists in temperatures of up to 1,000 degrees Centigrade. The Observer had some emotive language but seemed to keep the facts separate which reached temperatures of more than 1,000 C The only discrepancy between the two articles was over the initial cause of the fire. The Sunday Express interviewed a cable car technical expert Klaus Einsenkolb. He said that either a short circuit in the batteries or the possibility that someone had started it with a naked flame was more likely, This was their only reference to the cause of the fire. The Observer had many different statements about the cause of the fire. Yesterdays fire is believed to have startedafter one of the cables that pull the train up the mountain snapped, apparently starting the blaze They also had a statement from the local company Gletscherbahn Kaprun who owned the train. Due to a fire in the tunnel there was a shorting in the electrical circuit, consequently causing the train to catch fire. They also interviewed Klaus Einsenkolb, but stated nothing about his opinions of what caused the fire as in The Sunday Express. Both articles used similar language, but The Sunday Express used more emotive variations of language to put across the same point. The Sunday Express said the harrowing task today of identifying 170 young skiers burned alive The Observer stuck to the facts, however, some sensationalist language was used. 170 people were killed yesterday when a fire engulfed an Austrian funicular train The Sunday Express sensationalised the incident by using words like inferno and disaster repeatedly throughout their report. This created a mood in the article, expressing how terrible this tragedy was. Despite The Observer being a broadsheet paper, their article also used this type of language, such as inferno and tragedy. I think this also was used to create the mood. The underlying feeling in The Observers report was that this incident could have been prevented or its consequences reduced, had their been adequate safety measures and better maintenance. Manfred Muller, security director for the railway, admitted that there had been no emergency fire fighting equipment in the tunnel, or on the train The journalists use of admitted in this sentence supports his views that safety precautions were inadequate. After reading this article the reader was left with the impression it was just a terrible accident. Yesterdays disaster was the second tragedy to hit Kitzsteinhorn this year. announced a criminal investigation into the tragedy. No blame seemed to be pointed at anyone in this article. The Sunday Express article contained many interviews and comments from people involved with the incident. Most of the people interviewed were officials linked with the accident, like Norbert Karlsboeck, the town mayor of Kaprun, and Franz Schausberger the Salzburg governor. Mr Karlsboeck said: I did not realise the full extent of the catastrophe Salzburg governor Franz Schausberger said: I have declared a day of mourning. We can presume that everyone still on board the train is dead. They were commenting on their feelings about the incident. Klaus Eisenkolb, a cable car technician who worked on the planning of the line was also interviewed and spoke of what he thought about the occurrence of this incident and what could have possibly caused it. One witness and one survivor were also quoted. The Observer had fewer people interviewed, but had interviews with relatives and witnesses. They also had a statement from the company who owned the train, Gletscherbahn Kaprun, who commented on their feelings about this incident. In a statement, the company said: We and the whole town of Kaprun are in mourning. An unidentified man whose son had gone skiing that day, and a deacon were also interviewed. This gave the article a more personal feel, as the reader felt that they could relate to the people whos lives had been affected by this and so understand the tragedy better. The layout of these reports was very different. Article I had a large bold headline on the front cover saying INFERNO in capital letters, to draw peoples attention. There was also a large illustration of one of the survivors with a caption. There was then a double page spread. On the first side of the double spread was a pull quote in large bold letters Theres no hope left, the fumes were just terrible next to another illustration of a survivor with a caption. This would also get peoples attention; the reader may look at the pictures and then want to read on. Under the title was a diagram of the mountainside with text pointing out where the events took place. This was quite easy to understand and gave the basic information. Inside that diagram was another diagram showing where Kaprun was in context to Austria and then to the rest of Europe. The text was in columns around these illustrations. The double page was split into three blocks of text, an individual report started on the second page written by Greg Swift, a continuance of the first article by David Dillon, and then an additional report: Rising tide of Alpine tragedies. The Observer had a medium sized headline Inferno in the Alps in bold letters. Underneath was a large illustration of a survivor (the same as in article 1) with a caption. The article was started with two large bullet points, which would grab the readers attention. There was then a tiny diagram of where in Austria the incident took place, and where it was in relation to Europe. The article was again written in columns. It then too went to a double page. The headline on this double page A couple of breaths and they were lost was also a pull quote, keeping the readers attention. There was a block of pictures with quotes in the top centre of the pages showing the rescue team, survivors and their families, and the train. This was really effective. The block of pictures would really attract the readers attention, urging them to read the article. There was a large diagram showing a picture of the mountainside and where the tunnel was, and then a diagram of the actual train, showing in steps what happened and when. This diagram was very clear, showing exactly what happened in an easily understandable way. The double page was again split into sections of text. There was the main report by Denis Staunton, and then two smaller reports. One was by Jason Burke telling how former British Olympic skier Martin Bell feared that some of his friends could have been on the train. This linked the incident back to this country and how it affected people here. The other was by Anthony Browne, talking of worries over how many recent tragic accidents have occurred in the Alps. I think that the article that explained what happened and suggested the full horror of this incident more effectively was the article from The Observer. I felt that the way in which it was written managed to create a balance between putting across the facts but still expressing the horror of the tragedy. I think because the facts were not clouded with opinions, they were easier to understand. I thought that the double page spread was particularly effective. The pictures were clearer and attracted the readers attention. The diagram on the double page was very clear and easy to understand. It showed exactly what happened in stages, with information about the mountain and the tunnel. I also thought that the headline Inferno in the Alps on the front page was really effective. It gave enough information for you to know what had happened but was short enough for the reader to read at a glance. I felt that The Sunday Express article was more difficult to understand as there were fewer facts and the writing was very opinionated. Also because there were fewer interviews with people who were directly affected by the incident, such as survivors, and relatives of victims, it wasnt as easy to relate to that article. There was less text in general, as much of the space was taken up by large illustrations and headlines. Although the articles seemed to be similar they had differences which although may not be drastically apparent I felt they made a big difference to the effectiveness and success of the articles.

Essay --

I’ve heard it said that even the greatest of men are wise enough to fear the dark; whether that fear is rational or not, I’m not sure I’m worthy to judge. But until you’ve felt the dark and experienced the cold depths of it enveloping your soul, I’m not really sure you truly know what it is to fear. Manhattan, New York, 1977. The sweltering July summer left the dense city feeling sluggish and apathetic. I’d spent the day switching between my new television set and my open window (of course our a/c would break in the hottest month of the year), and I planned on walking a few blocks over to my friend’s house so I could spend the night in her wonderful air conditioned home. My mom was at work, probably wouldn’t be back until dawn, and so I was alone when dusk came, the sky still aglow from the bright lights of the city and the last remnants of daylight. I grabbed my duffel bag and headed out, eager to get to Jenny’s and relax in the cool air. I had just stepped into the hallway outside the apartment when it happened; there was a sort of jolt in the air. Suddenly, a buzzing noise could be heard, growing louder each passing second, as if someone was turning up the bass on an exponentially-loud amplifier. As the sound grew in decibels, the lights in the hallway flickered and became brighter, brighter, brighter, so bright I had to wince to look up at them. I swung open the door to the apartment to find all the lights on full blast, shining so brightly my skin began to burn. Slamming the door shut, I slid 2 down to the floor in the hallway and shut my eyes tight, too frightened to leave my apartment building. I was scared, sure, but soon I would find out what real fear feels like. A few minutes passed when, finally, the glare behind m... ...e, when I saw a single figure hunched over on the subway bench. Every instinct in my mind told me not to approach the shade before me. I pictured ghosts and spirits around it, waiting to prey on me, the Good Samaritan, very, very, far from Kansas. But I knew that I had to reach out and touch her, my mother had taught me that much. At their darkest hour, the wisest of men are no different than us, the same battery acid pumps through their veins, and the same fear cripples them. What we all feel together remains unanimous. At that moment, when I reached out to that sobbing woman, I saw my mother, and that dark subway tunnel was brighter than any human eye could have observed. There we sat together, until the lights shuttered their return, holding one another in utter darkness, not saying a word or identifying each other, but hearing and seeing the love between us.

ROM and Strengthening Exercises as a Treatment Option

There are multiple kinds of exercise that could be beneficial in treating acute whiplash. Literature shows exercises such as a McKenzie treatment, postural training exercise, endurance strengthening and motor control, eye fixation, isometric exercises, and resistive exercises. In reviewing the literature, these exercises were combined with other treatment strategies such as modalities or mobilization to get the most effective outcome. Also, at this point although there is a large amount of research done on treatment of whiplash injury, the conclusions that are made from this literature conflict each other. However, there is a consensus that excessive treatment of whiplash associated disorder may be counterproductive in the acute stages of injury. (Cochrane review) The evidence does not support episodes of care that last longer than 6-8 weeks with any one or combination of noninvasive interventions. If the intervention that is being attempted at that time is unsuccessful, it is then recommended that a different intervention be attempted. (Cochrane review) Based on this information, if active ROM and strengthening exercises are to be used, the intensity and frequency should be monitored closely to avoid increased injury. In comparing the effectiveness of these exercises, many studies compared them to periods of â€Å"standard care†. Standard Care included rest, analgesia, and general advice on gradual mobilization after a short period of rest. McKenzie treatment is based on the principle of centralization of pain and the use of exercises to reduce the stress on the surrounding neck musculature. For acute WAD patient’s, the goal is to stretch and decrease the tightness of the cervical extensor muscles, which may be overly contracted in this patient population. A common exercise to accomplish this is the chin tuck, where the patient retracts their chin and repeats this activity for a given number of repetitions. In a study by McKinney et al, three groups of patients with WAD were placed in 3 treatment categories and compared by outcome measures. The treatment categories included a home mobilization group who were instructed in postural correction, analgesia, collar, muscle relaxation and mobilization exercises. The second group was a group who received outpatient physiotherapy, including; McKenzie treatment, heat, cold, diathermy, traction, Maitland mobilization, postural correction and home exercise. The final group compared in this study received standard care as defined above. (Seferiadis, European spine journal) All treatments were given over a period of 6 weeks for 24 visits, with the follow up visits at 2 weeks. Cochrane review- exercises for mechanical neck disorders) Patients who received outpatient physiotherapy, including McKenzie treatment demonstrated improved cervical ROM and pain intensity in comparison to the treatment group receiving standard care. However, there was no difference in effectiveness between the outpatient physiotherapy group and home mobilization group. In a second study by Rosenfeld et al, the standard treatment for WAD was compared to active intervention that included McKenzie treatment and active cervical ROM. The group receiving active intervention demonstrated the most benefit when treatment was provided within 96 hours of initial injury. This group also demonstrated lower pain intensity and amount of sick leave, as well as improved cervical ROM in comparison to the standard care group. These outcomes were maintained at a 6 month and 3 year follow up (Seferiadis, European spine journal). Based on this literature and the results of the studies, McKenzie exercises have shown to be beneficial in reducing pain in patients with WAD. Postural training exercises as defined by a systematic review by Drescher et al, includes any correction, exercise or advice with the aim of improving posture. (Drescher) Postural training would be important for patients with WAD to avoid further exacerbation of muscle injury or reinjury at a later date. This could further carry over to job related tasks, as many people spend their day working at a desk sitting for long periods of time. Postural exercises may help patients to be more aware of their posture and make self-corrections to avoid future injury throughout the workday. In the systematic review by Drescher (Reference 22), the study compared a group receiving postural exercises to a control group who were not receiving postural exercises. It was found that the group that completed postural exercises demonstrated decreased pain and increased cervical ROM. Another high quality study (references 17-19) within this review compared an intervention group receiving postural exercises to the control group. The postural exercise group showed significant reduction in pain at both the 6 onth and 3 year follow up, as well as a lower amount of sick days taken from work at the 3 year study. There was no significant different in cervical ROM improvement in these two groups. Initially the cost of this postural training was higher, however ended up being lower when taking into account the cost of sick-leave days, loss of productivity and other interventions. (Drescher) In a study by Schnabel et al, it was determined that active therapy including postural advice and exercise was superior to passive modalities such as massage and ultrasound. There is limited evidence on specific postural exercises which would best benefit this population, however there has been some proof that this is a beneficial treatment. Therefore, further research into specific exercises and training strategies may be warranted to determine the best options for patients with WAD. A common side effect of whiplash is dizziness, which can limit patient’s ability to perform quick head movements and functional activities such as looking over their shoulder while walking. This dizziness is something which has been addressed by eye fixation exercises in the literature. Eye fixation exercises may also be known as proprioceptive exercise and can include; target exercises with varying degrees of difficulty by changing input from other body systems, and vestibular ocular reflexes with either a target moving or the target moving in the opposite direction of the patient’s head with the patient’s eyes maintaining focus on the target at all times. Eye-fixation exercises are used to restore coordinated movement and proprioceptive movement, which will decrease the degree of dizziness in the patient with WAD. Individually these programs have not shown to be beneficial, however when combined with other therapy treatments there has been minimal to moderate benefit. Based on a Cochrane review of exercises for mechanical neck disorder, it was found that including eye-fixation exercises into a complete physical therapy program showed moderate evidence of benefit for pain and function for acute whiplash disorder. This is also supported in a study by Provinciali, where one group was treated with eye fixation exercises to treat dizziness, along with mobilization and additional neck exercises. This group had significant results in decreased pain on the VAS scale over the group that received TENS and pulsed EMG (Cochrane – exercises). Based on these studies, if a patient with WAD is experiencing dizziness as a symptom, eye fixation exercises may be a beneficial addition to the treatment plan. Another treatment option that has shown positive results in the literature is the use of isometric resistive exercises to strengthen the cervical muscles. Isometric exercises are strengthening exercises designed to strengthen the musculature while maintaining the body in one position. This may be beneficial for patients with acute WAD who are unable to move through a large range of motion, as they will still receive the benefit of strengthening exercises. A study done by Soderlund et al. compared two groups of patients receiving treatment for acute whiplash. The first group was receiving regular treatment that included instructions on what activities to avoid and what activities to continue with. Table 1 describes the treatment plan given to both the normal treatment group and the additional treatment group. Patients in the additional exercise group were instructed to follow all instructions given to the normal treatment group, as well as perform additional isometric exercises. This exercise is described as the patient lying down on the ground, and imagines a â€Å"quadrangle† behind their head. They are then instructed to imagine pushing their head into each corner of the quadrangle, and repeat the cycle 3 times. The result of this study found that patients in the additional treatment group were able to continue to decrease their pain rating at follow up periods of three and six months, whereas the normal treatment group had the same amount of pain at these follow up visits. This study would indicate that the additional treatments are beneficial to help decrease the patient’s pain longer after injury.

Interesting characters Essay

Miller also uses many dramatic devices to attain emotional intensity at the beginning of Act Two. The use of short sentences and many pauses allow the audience to speculate about the state of John and Elizabeth’s relationship and wonder why it has turned out this way. Two examples of short lines are ‘I am’ and ‘aye’ an example of the pauses is ‘he eats, she watches’. The pauses and short lines allow the lines to have time to sink in therefore potentially creating more emotion, but also making us sad at their separation. The use of Elizabeth and John having an argument creates tension and the way Elizabeth ‘hurt and very coldly’ says ‘good then let you think on it’ before ‘she stands and starts to walk out of the room’. It is clear from the beginning of the scene these characters are withholding information about the nature of their separation, this causes the audience to come to some upsetting and hasty conclusions. Miller’s use of dramatic devices in Act Two helps the play achieve its emotional intensity. The play has a few themes throughout which repeat themselves. Firstly power is a large theme of the play constantly being bought up. In fact the one thing all the characters have in common is there lust for power, Reverend Parris uses the witch trials to gain power and respect. Abigail and her allies work for the court in order to get power, this is shown when Elizabeth says ‘she raises up her chin like the daughter of a prince and says to me I must go to Salem Goody Proctor; I am an official of the court! ‘ This shows she is working for the court in order to gain power. Elizabeth would like to have power over Proctor. Power is often exploited in the western world, The Crucible shows that people made this same mistake in Salem. Power is an extremely sensitive theme able to evoke deep emotions. The second theme is hysteria, the girls are completely hysterical at the end of Act one this is linked to power as some think that the use of hysteria can help gain power. The hysteria moves the audience and keeps them deeply involved in the play. The final theme is dignity, which has been lost throughout the play up until the last part of the play where proctor gains a great deal of respect, and dignity. In Act one Tituba has her dignity stolen, from her as does Abigail and the other girls. In Act Two John loses his dignity when he refuses to tell the court about Abigail. Themes play a major part in maintaining emotional intensity at the end of Act One and the beginning of Act Two. It is clear that The Crucible is emotionally intense at the end of Act One and beginning of Act Two. Miller creates this intensity by employing dramatic techniques and drawing upon contextual significance to present two intense, but contrasting scenes. Even though the original audience would have found it emotional on different scales, it is obvious that all audiences would find it emotionally intense to some extent. Miller achieved emotional intensity by his use of dramatic techniques, interesting characters, allegorical significance and emotive themes.

Hittites and the Hittite Empire

Hittites and the Hittite Empire Two different types of Hittites are mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (or Old Testament): the Canaanites, who were enslaved by Solomon; and the Neo-Hittites, Hittite kings of northern Syria who traded with Solomon. The events related in the Old Testament occurred in the 6th century BC, well after the glory days of the Hittite Empire.The discovery of the Hittite capital city of Hattusha was an important event in archaeology of the near east, because it increased our understanding of the Hittite Empire as a powerful, sophisticated civilization of the 13th through 17th centuries BC. The Hittite Civilization cuneiform    Timeline Old Hittite Kingdom [ca. 1600-1400 BC]Middle Kingdom [ca. 1400-1343 BC]Hittite Empire [1343-1200 BC] Babylon Sources Cities: Important Hittite cities include Hattusha (now called Boghazkhoy), Carchemish (now Jerablus), Kussara or Kushshar (which has not been relocated), and Kanis. (now Kultepe)

Analysis Of Crimes Of The Heart Essays - Crimes Of The Heart

Analysis Of Crime's Of The Heart Essays - Crimes Of The Heart Analysis Of Crime's Of The Heart Crimes of the Heart A-D A. Where is the play? 1. Hazlehurst, Mississippi USA 2. The scenes take place in the home of the Magrath sisters. (Actually it's their grandfather's house, but it is cared for and inhabited primarily by Lenny Magrath.) 3. The house is old, the exact age and condition is not described. B. When is the play? 1. The play takes place in the summer sometime during the late 19 70's to early 1980's. 2. The play takes place soon after the birthday of Lenny Magrath, which has a special significance to the characters. C. Who is in the play? 1.The 3 Magrath sisters, Lenny, Babe, and Meggy, are the main cluster of characters. The other three characters are Chick, a Magrath cousin, Barnette, Babe's attorney, and Doc Porter, an old friend of Meg and Lenny. A character that is often talked about is Granddaddy, yet he is never seen. 1. The Magrath sisters complete the different portions that fufill society's image of an ordinary woman. Each of these women play the roles that a normal woman plays such as wife, mother, daughter, and sister. Barnette is a lawyer who is defending Babe, whom he is infatuated with. Doc Porter is a father of two and a husband who once wanted to be a doctor, who now apparently owns a small ranch, he also spent time as a house painter. Granddaddy is an old man who is in the hospital. 2. It seems that all the characters have a mutual respect for each other, aside from Chick who has strong opinions concerning Meg. As I have mentioned the character of Barnette is infatuated with Babe. Babe and Lenny both feel that Meg has always been treated better by their Grandmother and Grandfather. 3. Lenny has a poor self image. 4. The Characters all live in a democratic nation. 5. The characters pay no attention to religion, it is rarely mentioned in the play. 6. The prevailing attitudes of the characters are that family is important, sex is not considered a bad thing. They seem to consider anything that can be rationally justified as ethical. They seem to live within these attitudes quite peacefully. D. What Happened before the play began? 1. Long before the play began the Magrath sisters' mother apparently hung herself along with the her cat. 2. After the mothers death the grandparents took custody of the girls. 3. The grandmother died. 4. The Magrath sisters were taken care of by the grandfather solely after that. 5. Meg abandoned Doc Porter in Biloxi during a hurricane. 6. Babe Married Botrelle. 7. Lenny met her man from Memphis. 8. Babe shot Botrelle. 9. Lenny wired Meg telling her to come home.

Essay on Siemens CSR

Essay on Siemens CSR Essay on Siemens CSR Sample essay on Siemens CSR: Siemens is an international company that deals with electronics. Over the years, the company has stood for technical achievements, quality, reliability and innovation. Siemens is the leading provider of technologies that are eco-friendly. In terms of energy efficiency, healthcare that is personalized and industrial productivity, Siemens is the pioneer. What Siemens can leverage Siemens can employ several strategies in order to leverage. The strategies will lead to long term growth of the company. One of such strategies is sustainability which means that the company will act responsibly in order to cater for future generations. The main aim of sustainability is to achieve social, economic and environmental progress (Voien 205) To achieve efficiency, Siemens is providing products that are innovative in the area of environment. The company is also aimed at providing solutions that will improve the Eco balance of its customers and that of itself. When it comesto business, the company mainly focuses on the creation of long term values. The company also fosters its employees so that they can be good citizens in the areas where the company operates. By implementing CSR, the company focuses on such issues as Innovation, human rights, diversity, employee qualifications and sustainability in the supply chain. All the members of the company contribute to sustainability of the company by carrying corporate functions such as those related to health, environment and safety. In order to be strategic in the market, Siemens can employ some strategic methods. First, it can expand its environment portfolio in order to increase its target and generate more revenue. The company can also come up with solutions that will assist in reducing greenhouse emissions by advancing green innovations. The other key strategy would be the involvement of stakeholders. This can be done by exchange of ideas by increasingly collaborating with organizations which will help them improve their sustainability. It is also crucial for the company to improve dialogue with stakeholders. Another strategy that the company can adopt is innovativeness (Voien 208). This can be achieved by unleashing creativity, potential and energy of their employees. The company should also strive to measure the success of their strategies by basing them on the feedback they get from their customers. The company should on a continuing basis update their portfolio with an aim to providing solutions to challenges that the society is facing. This will enable the company to provide sustainable values. With an aim to engage employees, the company can employ modern modes of social media such as Facebook and twitter. Such platforms for communication will enable the company to give employees a sense of freedom as they adopt modern modes of interaction and communication. Use of Microsoft technology will also enable the company to engage employees in the activities of the company. Siemens should also encourage democratic participation of employees in the activities of the company (Voien 218). This will enable the employees have a feeling of ownership of community programs and eventually efficiency will be improved in the long run. Panasonic Corporation has extensively used social media in marketing which is a shift from odd marketing strategies and leveraged on Facebook and LinkedIn company pages. Such pages are being used regularly for press release providing customers with an interactive community page for interaction. Panasonic Corporation tweets usually pop-up with messages proving customers with latest booths to visits, at the same time providing customers and the corporation with a platform to share their views and opinions on the company products. In conclusion, the CSR issues of Siemens are critical for the success and sustainability of the company. Customers of the company should be engaged so that they can give feedback on the products and services of the company. Our custom essay writing service can write a non-plagiarized essay, term paper or research paper on Siemens for you. Order custom papers written from scratch!

Global Warming's effects on Tornadoes in the Mid West Research Proposal

Global Warming's effects on Tornadoes in the Mid West - Research Proposal Example However, it is quite clear that different locations experiences distinct global warming effects. Indeed, Mid-West and especially Oklahoma is prone to global warming effects in form of tornadoes. Purpose Statement The main aim, of this paper is to research on global warming and provide supporting data on the global warming effect on strength and frequency of tornadoes on the mid-west, specifically Oklahoma and surrounding states. The research will provide evidence that indeed global warming has been leading to adverse weather effects like tornadoes in the mid-west during the recent times. In this study, I will define global warming as an independent variable, which relates to extreme changes in global temperatures due to the increase of greenhouse gases such as Carbon Dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide, and methane due to anthropogenic (synthetic) causes (Union of Concerned Scientists, 2011). I will also define a combination of atmospheric instability and wind shear as the causes of tornado es (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2013). I hope that my study will seek to establish the correlation between global warming effects and the changes in the strength and frequency of tornadoes on the mid-west with special focus on Oklahoma and surrounding states. ... Many scientists assert that unless we address the causes and effects of climatic changes from global warming, the world is prone to extreme climatic effects. Various researches establish that carbon dioxide and other global warming pollutants are collecting in the atmosphere thus trapping the sun's heat and causing the planet to warm up (Natural Resources Defense Council, 2011). This has led to fast fluctuation of local temperatures in the last 50 years and scientists claim that this may advance to an increase of 3 to 9 degrees in U.S. temperatures if we do not contain the situation (Natural Resources Defense Council, 2011). Notably, droughts, tornadoes, and hurricanes are some of the adverse effects of global warming across the globe (Kunzig, 2013). Ideally, scientists have been trying to establish the relationship between global warming and tornadoes. As a result, scientists have established that indeed global warming may increase or suppress the intensity or frequency of tornadoes across the globe especially in Oklahoma and surrounding states (Kunzig, 2013). Research Questions This research seeks to address specific questions, which include: 1) Is global warming the direct cause of tornadoes in the mid-west United States? 2) If global warming persist what impact will it have on the frequency and strength of tornadoes in the mid-west United States? 3) What effect will tornadoes have on the environment, economy, agriculture, human life, settlements, aquatic life, transport, and health in Oklahoma and surrounding states? 4) What measures can reduce the incidence of tornadoes in Oklahoma and surrounding states? 6) What are the main causes and influencing

Impact of the Turkish Language on the Turkey Culture Essay

Impact of the Turkish Language on the Turkey Culture - Essay Example The emergence and use of English in Turkey has also been discussed. English use has facilitated globalization and placed Turkey in the international scene. Christianity has also begun to spread with the increased use of English. The importance and influence of both languages has been extensively discussed. Introduction This report seeks to establish information on the impacts of language, cultures, and communication on a community. The report will analyze if language choice is a real choice in multilingual contexts, and more so considering issues like linguistic imperialism and language policy. In this report, the focus will be on Turkish language, and if English has been effective in Turkey. In the following part of the report, two sociolinguistic or intercultural issues will be reviewed in the context of the choice of language in this community, and how significant they are in their choice of language. These are language planning and language attitudes. There are several issues tha t influence a community or social network, and they include multilingualism, language planning, language shift, politeness, dialect variation, language attitudes, language, and gender. In its definition, a language is any set of defined regulations that can be used to put into words ideas, thought, or instructions. This has brought about variance in different languages. For instance Turkish language has basic features, which make it different from the Indo-European are the vowel harmony, the absence of gender, agglutination, adjectives preceding nouns, and verbs appear at the end of the sentence ( Turkish Cultural Foundation, 2011). Since most of the world’s inhabitants can converse in only one language, a reasonable minority can exchange a few words in two or more languages. For instance, out of the world’s 750 million speakers who speak English, only a small percentage of them use it as their native or first language. The other significant part of the English speaker s uses it as a second or third language. Perfect examples of speakers who use English as their other language are people from Turkey who majorly speak the Turkish language as their first language. In situations where two or more speakers of languages gather at a place, a resolution has to be made about which language will be of use in expressing their ideas and thoughts. This is the choice of language (Turkish Cultural Foundation, 2011). Linguistic imperialism is the obligation of one language on speakers of other languages (Turkish Cultural Foundation, 2011). Currently, the worldwide expansion of English language has often been seen as the principal case of linguistic imperialism. Through the use of language policy the government attempts to put off or support the use of a language in its country or state. In this aspect, we consider both the written and spoken contexts of a language. This can be by the use of legislation, policies, or court decisions to decide on how the use of la nguages and encourages language skills necessary to establish the use of the language. Examples of language policies include policies of assimilation, policies of non-intervention, policies of differentiated legal status, policies of promotion of the official language and many other policies. Turkish is a Turkic language with about 70 million users in Turkey and other countries including Austria, Belgium, Germany, France, Canada, Georgia, Denmark and others. In the past times, the writing of

The Modern World Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

The Modern World Economy - Essay Example The essay "The Modern World Economy" talks about infant argument claims in terms of the modern world economy and analyses the experience in this question of different countries. The experience of West Germany, the United States, Japan and South Korea suggests that governmental support in promoting infant industries did assist efficient industrialization processes to some extent. However, the experiences of other countries, mainly the developing countries, seem to suggest that protection policy has been frequently abused. Therefore, it is not surprising to find a large body of literature which exhibits considerable skepticism concerning the success of infant industry protection in developing countries. The effective rate of protection has been high for most import-competing industries for a long time and export performance has been poor, with most of them being orientated towards the domestic market. Recent writings in the theory of international trade suggest that IS and EP industrial strategies are not mutually exclusive. For example, Krueger (1995, p. 207) have argued that these two strategies are sequential rather than being alternatives and they can be compatible rather than separate strategies. They have further asserted that IS is needed not only for creating export ability, but also for providing the volume basis necessary for competitive exportation. Indeed, this is the core of the infant industry argument. Empirically this view has been supported by South Korea's success in its policy of pursuing both EP and IS strategies simultaneously.

Climate Change and Soil Formation in Southern England Essay

Climate Change and Soil Formation in Southern England - Essay Example At the same time there has also been an increase in the population, and a change in the way individuals make a living and support themselves and their families. The first people to live in southern England were hunters and gatherers, but they slowly evolved into farmers as more people inhabited the area and methods of farming improved. Later, another change occurred with the coming of the Industrial Revolution, which changed farmers into industrial workers. These changes, along with climate changes have had an impact on the soil in southern England (Jarvis, 1984, 12). The start of climate change and its effect on soil began in southern England with the ice age. Approximately one-third of the earth was covered in snow and ice, and due to its location in the northern hemisphere, England was affected. While much of the country was covered year round with ice and snow, the southern parts occasionally had periods where the temperature would raise enough to melt some of the snow and ice and provide precipitation for the soil underneath (Bridges, 1997, 36). However, due to the cold temperatures, the ice age slowed the process of soil formation and change, essentially slowing the rate soil was able to intake precipitation. It also slowed the speed at which organic matter decomposed and the rate of plant and vegetation growth. This in return slowed the rate at which the soil could consume needed nutrients and organic matter, which slowed the entire process of formation and change. The ice age made an important contribution to the soil of southern England by bringing in new soil. The ice and snow that covered the area was brought from the north, and with it came a large amount of debris that included fine particles, small rocks, and even huge boulders (Bridges, 1997, 36). When the ice melted, the debris remained and became embedded in the soil. This provided the ground with a large amount of parent material in which young soil was able to begin formation and maturation. In certain areas, the effects of the ice age on soil and landscape can still be seen today. After the ice age passed and the climate changed to warmer weather, people started migrating from other parts of Europe into England. This was considered the Neolithic period and started around 4500 B.C. This period of time was essentially similar to the Stone Age, when houses, buildings, fences, etc. where all constructed out of rocks and stones. Many of these structures still exist, while others have been torn down or broken apart. This had an impact on the soil in southern England, due to the fact that remnants of this period, in the form of small rocks can be found embedded in the soil in certain areas. In addition, during this time and even into the Bronze Age, individuals moving to England were beginning to develop agriculture fields. These early farmers impacted the soil on their land by using domestic waste as fertilizer to provide extra nutrients and organic materials to the soil and the crops they were trying to grow. In addition to using fertilize during the Bronze Age to change the soil, tools, such as the plow, were introduced that assisted individuals in developing fields for agriculture. This led to farmers having the ability to grow a crop, plow the ground, and immediately replant a new crop. The constant presence of plant growth on

On Double Standards Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On Double Standards - Essay Example Men are expected to be more aggressive while women are supposed to be more submissive and reserved. It is readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." For example, a man who is attracted to a pretty woman can always ask her out. However, a woman asking a man out is less acceptable. The commencement of a relationship is seen as the "right" of every guy while ladies can only accept. The essay will look at the different double standards based on gender. The first section will look at the most common double standards present in the society. Afterwards, the essay will expose the arguments for and against double standard. It will also contain various citations from different authors and social scientists who are experts in this topic. In the end, I will give my own opinion regarding the essay. The fate of an individual is undeniably almost always determined by sexuality. It is irrefutable that the society where are living in has this preconceived notion of what is right and what is acceptable action for each gender. Currently, society has readily accepted that some things are naturally "men's" things while some are "women's." The presence of double standard is an undeniable fact.

Climate Change and Soil Formation in Southern England Essay

Climate Change and Soil Formation in Southern England - Essay Example At the same time there has also been an increase in the population, and a change in the way individuals make a living and support themselves and their families. The first people to live in southern England were hunters and gatherers, but they slowly evolved into farmers as more people inhabited the area and methods of farming improved. Later, another change occurred with the coming of the Industrial Revolution, which changed farmers into industrial workers. These changes, along with climate changes have had an impact on the soil in southern England (Jarvis, 1984, 12). The start of climate change and its effect on soil began in southern England with the ice age. Approximately one-third of the earth was covered in snow and ice, and due to its location in the northern hemisphere, England was affected. While much of the country was covered year round with ice and snow, the southern parts occasionally had periods where the temperature would raise enough to melt some of the snow and ice and provide precipitation for the soil underneath (Bridges, 1997, 36). However, due to the cold temperatures, the ice age slowed the process of soil formation and change, essentially slowing the rate soil was able to intake precipitation. It also slowed the speed at which organic matter decomposed and the rate of plant and vegetation growth. This in return slowed the rate at which the soil could consume needed nutrients and organic matter, which slowed the entire process of formation and change. The ice age made an important contribution to the soil of southern England by bringing in new soil. The ice and snow that covered the area was brought from the north, and with it came a large amount of debris that included fine particles, small rocks, and even huge boulders (Bridges, 1997, 36). When the ice melted, the debris remained and became embedded in the soil. This provided the ground with a large amount of parent material in which young soil was able to begin formation and maturation. In certain areas, the effects of the ice age on soil and landscape can still be seen today. After the ice age passed and the climate changed to warmer weather, people started migrating from other parts of Europe into England. This was considered the Neolithic period and started around 4500 B.C. This period of time was essentially similar to the Stone Age, when houses, buildings, fences, etc. where all constructed out of rocks and stones. Many of these structures still exist, while others have been torn down or broken apart. This had an impact on the soil in southern England, due to the fact that remnants of this period, in the form of small rocks can be found embedded in the soil in certain areas. In addition, during this time and even into the Bronze Age, individuals moving to England were beginning to develop agriculture fields. These early farmers impacted the soil on their land by using domestic waste as fertilizer to provide extra nutrients and organic materials to the soil and the crops they were trying to grow. In addition to using fertilize during the Bronze Age to change the soil, tools, such as the plow, were introduced that assisted individuals in developing fields for agriculture. This led to farmers having the ability to grow a crop, plow the ground, and immediately replant a new crop. The constant presence of plant growth on

Business and Financial Environment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Business and Financial Environment 2 - Essay Example (Moles and Terry, 1997). A firm faces finances risk if there is a high probability that it might be unable to meet its fixed financial obligations or prior chares such as interest, principal repayments, lease payments, or preferred stock dividends. Financial risk is therefore risk arising from the use of debt finance, which requires periodic payments of interest and principal and may not be covered by the firm's operating cash flows. (Moles and Terry, 1997). The capital structure of a firm is made up of both debt and equity components. Although the use of debt in financing part of the firm's operations is advantageous to the firm, these advantages tend to disappear when too much debt is used. In effect when debt is used above the optimum level, the result is financial distress. (Ross et al, 1999). Ross et al (1999) asserts that debt puts pressure on the firm, since interest and principal repayments as well as short-term payables are financial obligations. In the event where these obligations are not met, the firm may risk some sort of financial distress. (Ross et al, 1999). Debt obligations are fundamentally different from stock obligations in that bondholders are legally entitled to interest and principal repayments more than stockholders are legally entitled to dividends. (Ross et al, 1999). ... (Ross et al, 1999). Although debt carries a tax advantage, the costs of financial distress tend to offset this advantage when debt is used above the optimal level. (Ross et al, 1999). The optimal level of debt can be referred to as the debt level that provides the maximum firm value. the value of the firm begins to disappear once this debt level is exceeded. (Ross et al, 1999). The firm should therefore adopt a debt-to-equity ratio that maximizes the value of the firm. (Ross et al, 1999). Question (ii) WCOA Ltd Ordinary Shareholders' Required Rate of Return. Under this section, the required rate of return is calculated under the assumption that the risk class of the new investment remains the same as the risk of the original investment. This calculation is done before and after the issue of the new debentures. Having said this we now calculate the required rate of return before the issue of the new debentures and we later calculate the return after the issue of the new debentures. a) Required Rate of Return for WCOA Ordinary Shareholders Before the issue of the New Debentures.1 Earnings from original investments 64.000 Earnings from new investment 8.000 Total Earnings before interest 72.000 Interest (8% of 320,000) 25.600 Earnings after interest 46.400 Number of shares outstanding 130.000 Earnings per share (EPS) 0,3569 Book Value 260.000 Book Value per share 2 Expected Return on ordinary equity shares (ROE) 17,85% b) Required Rate of Return for WCOA Ordinary Shareholders after the issue of the New Debentures.2 Earnings from original investments 64.000 Earnings from new investment 8.000 Total Earnings before interest 72.000 Interest (8% of 400,000)

A View from the Bridge Essay Example for Free

A View from the Bridge Essay Pride plays a great role in the play, â€Å"A View from the Bridge†. The biggest victim of pride is Eddie, who loses both his pride and respect throughout the play. And this gradual loss heavily affects the characters’ behaviors. However pride does not seem to be the only factor that dictates the progress of the play. In the beginning of the play, Eddie is full of pride. He is respected by both Marco and Rodolfo as well as the community. The quote, â€Å"I want to tell you now Eddie – when you say go, we will go,† shows that Marco and Rodolfo respect Eddie. The quote in other words means that Marco and Rodolfo will be doing whatever Eddie tells them to do. The fact that this is Marco’s first significant line in the play shows how important Marco thinks of Eddie. Also the hyphen in the middle of the sentence gives effect, which emphasizes the message Marco is trying to send to Eddie. The pride Marco and Rodolfo give Eddie in the family allows Eddie to lower his guard and gives him a chance to respect Marco as well. This perspective can be seen from the following line. Eddie says, â€Å"You’re welcome, Marco, we got plenty of room here. † He addresses Marco, which shows that Eddie is in favor of him. Then the second part of the line, â€Å"we got plenty of room here. †, not only shows the Eddie is welcoming Marco, but it also shows that Eddie has given Marco his respect. A â€Å"Room† in their house symbolizes respect. At first, Eddie and Marco both have each other’s trust and respect, giving them both pride which brings the two to a peaceful relationship. Later as the play progresses Eddie begins to lose his pride. Marco says, â€Å"Here. (the chair raised like a weapon over Eddie’s head – and he transforms what might appear like a glare of warning into a smile of triumph)† The simplicity of the sentence emphasizes Marco’s loss of respect for Eddie. The stage direction, â€Å"Over Eddie’s head† also symbolizes how Marco has overcome Eddie. Also the â€Å"glare of warning† shows that Marco no longer thinks of Eddie as someone he should respect. The story continues as Eddie loses his pride. Pride is very important to Eddie. He says â€Å"Yeah Marco! Eddie Carbone. Eddie Carbone. Eddie Carbone. † His name symbolizes his pride and the repetition of it shows the importance of his name in Eddie’s heart. Also he does not just say his first name but also his last name, which also emphasizes his name – his pride. The community’s reaction is another event that comes from pride. â€Å"(Lipari and wife exits†¦ Louis barely turns, then walks off the stage and exits down right with Mike. )† is a stage direction that shows the community’s reaction to what Eddie had done to Marco and Rodolfo. Lipari and his wife, Louis, and Mike represent the community. The fact that they have â€Å"walked off† and â€Å"exited† indicates that the whole community has turned their backs on Eddie. From there, we can see that Eddie has lost his pride in his community as well as his family. Although pride is a main factor behind the progression of the play, loyalty and family relationships, also play a very important role. Family relationships play a very important role. This could be seen from Beatrice’s line, â€Å"Eddie, listen to me. Who could give you your name? Listen to me, I love you, I’m talking to you. I love you. † The short sentences make the sentence feel real and have a real impact, as if Beatrice is really trying to talk to Eddie. Furthermore, the repetition of the phrases, â€Å"listen to me† and â€Å"I love you† emphasizes how much Beatrice really cares about Eddie. Pride and family relationships play a huge rule in the progression of the play.

Role of Self Assessment in Learning

Role of Self Assessment in Learning My interest in self-assessment stems from personal experiences of being assessed and the frustration felt when most assessed work was simply awarded a grade, contained minimum feedback if any and was then expected to be filed away despite the many questions I may have had. However, many years later, while attended a language teaching training course, I was given a self-evaluation sheet to complete by the instructor. Uncomfortable as this was, I realised that this was the first time that I had been presented a format to self-assess/reflect on my work. After completing the sheet and the subsequent discussion about the contents, the instructor provided feedback of a type that I could use, in a context which was supportive and which respected my goals as a language teacher. Since then I have developed an interest in how self-assessment can be used to promote learning in an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classroom. During my teaching in Asia I have seen the need for learners to take greater responsibility for their own learning in order to move away from the more traditional teacher-led, didactic approach. I have found that using self-assessment as part of reflective learning can lead to greater ownership and autonomous learning as more attention is paid to how learners acquire knowledge. This essay evaluates the role of assessments, particularly self-assessment as a tool for promoting learning, as I recount the journey taken with my Chinese learners on an English Pathways Program (EPP) and what has led to the decision for using a range of formative tasks contained in a portfolio of written work, with learners ultimately taking ownership of their learning. What is the role of assessments? Assessment according to Gipps (1994, p. vii) is: a wide range of methods for evaluating student performance and attainment including formal testing and examinations, practical and oral assessment, and classroom based assessment carried out by teachers and portfolios. Many curricula in language schools reflect Tylers (1949) classical model that specified objectives, content, and means of achieving and assessing pre-determined learning outcomes. This model of behaviourism views the learner as a passive absorber of information provided by the teacher and in this way learning becomes an incidental rather than an intentional process. Gipps (1994) argues that the dominance of this model in the classroom, has meant that teachers have focused their instruction on discrete skills and on decontextualized test items, with continued practice until mastery is achieved. Black and Wiliam (1998a) found this type of testing encourages superficial or shallow rote learning, as learning isolated facts, quickly disappear from the memory because they have no meaning and do not fit into the learners conceptual map. This has been witnessed many time in our classrooms where on one day students are able to recite easily a list of vocabulary or grammatical rules, as they have just done that in class or in a test, but are unable to recall the same information, a few days later. An alternative to this behaviourist/objectives model comes from constructivist psychology which argues that knowledge is not directly transmittable from person to person, but rather is individually constructed or discovered. Glasersfeld (1989) argues that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner and constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where as we noted above the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Glasersf eld (1989) urges that learners be taught how to learn by engaging their metacognitive functions, resulting in learning being an intentional process and leading to deep learning. Sadler (1989) supports this by saying that developments in metacognition tell us students need to become competent assessors of their own work. McDonald and Boud (2003) have argued that the formal development of self-assessment skills is an important part of the curriculum at all levels (p. 210) with Black and Wiliam (1998b) stating that self-assessment is an essential component of formative assessment. In support of this active learning approach, Gipps (1994) advocates for more frequent and a greater range of assessments, such as essays, performance assessments, small group tasks and projects. Bould (1991) defines self-assessment as the involvement of students in identifying standards and/or criteria to apply to their work and making judgements about the extent to which they have met these criteria and standards. (Boud, 1991, p.5). The latter stage, often called self-grading or self-testing is only one aspect of self-assessment and Bould (1995) warns against an overemphasis on this aspect as it can direct attention away from involving learners in identifying and engaging with criteria, a stage which he says is both difficult and often neglected. In China today, assessments give all the power to the teacher, to make unilateral and final judgements on a students work. However, if we want our students to become independent, active learners, then this relationship between student and teacher needs to be changed and by incorporating self-assessment into classroom learning, students as well as teachers acknowledge assessment as a mutual responsibility, and not as the sole respon sibility of the teacher (Oscarson, 1989). Other relevant issues concerning assessments noted by Black and Wiliam (1998a) were: the filling in of records rather than analysing students work to identify their learning needs; and the over-emphasis on awarding marks and grades, often using normative referencing, which encourages competition rather than personal improvement. Many of our learners experience of normative referencing in their previous schools led them to believe that they lacked ability and as a result they had lost confidence in their own capacity to learn. Therefore, as a result of this, we adopted a more ipsative approach where learners are more focussed on their own gains rather than others grades. In support of this Hounsell et al. (2008) noted that awarding grades often comes at the expense of giving useful advice or feedback, which needs to be integral to the ongoing teaching and learning cycle, as achievement gains from formative assessment are amongst the most substantive of all pedagogical interventions. E llery (2008, p. 422) elaborates on this by saying that, the opportunities for learning are greatest in formative assignments requiring drafts where students receive feedback and have the occasion to actively engage with the feedback to improve the product in its subsequent draft(s), such as in essays. Gipps (1994) argues for the use of qualitative descriptors believing that collapsing or aggregating all results to provide a single figure for reporting is to lose detailed information. When scores must be aggregated for reporting then we need to use models which result in the least loss of information and to make the rules explicit. To summarise, I feel the program should consider the learner as an active participant, use a range of formative assessments, with a focus on self-assessments, feedback and leaners progress rather than awarding grades. What are the benefits, issues of using self-assessments and are they reliable? To evaluate self-assessments, the literature was reviewed to establish the associated benefits and issues, in addition to the reliability of the tool for sour situation. Several benefits of using self-assessment have been identified. A number of language researchers have found self-assessment to be a reliable method of improving students language skills and abilities (Ekbatani, 2000; Nunan, 1988), developing learner autonomy and metacognitive engagement (Andrade and Du 2007; Cassidy 2007), enhancing learning, including deep and lifelong learning (Taras 2008) and it contributes to student achievement (Hughes, Sullivan Mosley 1985; Schunk, 1996; Ross 2006). Studies have also shown that self-assessments has a positive effect on students learning motivation (Pope, 2001) and learning performance (McDonald Boud, 2003). However, several issues with self-assessment have also been identified. Some students are reluctant to self-assess, feeling they lack the necessary skills, confidence or ability to judge their own work or simply are afraid of being wrong (Leach 2012), preferring and expecting to be assessed by experts (Evans, McKenna, and Oliver 2005) or students may see it as the teachers responsibility (Brown and Knight 1994). In addition, in many Asian countries the very concept of self-assessment goes against deep-rooted cultural expectations about learning and giving themselves a good grade is considered inappropriate, boasting (Leach 2012), resulting in individuals from Eastern cultures generally displaying a modesty bias, and thereby underrating their performance (Yik, Bond, and Paulhus, 1998). Therefore, it is important to explain the rationale to the learners and demonstrate that as learners we daily self-evaluate (e.g. reciting a list of words). To address cultural issues it may require ind ividual consultations to allay concerns. Although self-assessment is being used in a range of settings: science, maths, and language classes; primary, secondary and tertiary education; there is still some doubt about its reliability which Gipps defines as the extent to which an assessment would produce the same, or similar, score on two occasions or if given by two assessors (1994: p. vii). Bachman and Palmer (1989) found that a group of EFL learners in the US were able to reliably self-rate themselves for their communicative language abilities. Boud and Falchikov (1989) found there was no consistent tendency to over or underestimate performance by students. Some students in some circumstances tended towards one di ­rection, others in the same or different situations towards the other. However, they found the ability of self-assessors was a noticeable variable, with the more able students making more accurate self-assessments than their less able peers. Weaker and less mature students also tended to overrate themselves an d the weaker they are, in terms of teacher ratings, the greater the degree of overrating. One explanation offered by Boud and Falchikov (1989) for this was learners not being aware of, or choosing not to subscribe to, the standards set by teachers, erred on the side of optimism. Boud and Falchikov (1989) also found that over-estimates are more likely to be found if the self-assessments contribute to the students grade in a course and young children may over-estimate due to a lack of cognitive skills to integrate information about their abilities and are more vulnerable to wishful thinking. Ross, et. al (1999) found that agreement of teacher and student assessments is higher when teachers provide direct instruction to students on how to self-assess their work, Ross (2006) says that the strengths of self-assessment can be enhanced and weaknesses addressed through training students how to assess their work thereby placing training as central to the successful implementation of self-ass essment. According to Ross (2006), one other factor which may be overlooked by teachers is that students may include in their self-assessments information that is not available or obvious to the teacher, such as effort. We have found that discussing with the students their grade helps to draw out underlying beliefs of the students on their work, rather than relying totally on the physical evidence presented. Issues identified with previous studies Ross (2006) and Boud and Falchikov (1989) after extensive review, both found a lack of sufficient studies looking at improvement over time, to draw any firm conclusions and there is particularly a lack of studies on the influence of practice on self-marking over time. They also expressed some concern about the quality, especially regarding the lack of definition in the criteria used by teachers and students, something we address later in the essay. What needs to be consider before Implementing Self-Assessment Considering what the literature provided, outlined below is the approach taken on implementing self-assessment in EPP. Firstly, as identified by Boud (1995, p.189), an effective program needs to gain student commitment, link well with the subject matter, and encourage students to take greater responsibility for learning. A common issue on many language courses which follow the objectives approach, is only the products of learning are assessed which is insufficient to guide learning. However, on the EPP the process of learning is often of greater importance than specifically what is learned as not all learning is evident in a final product, no matter how well thought out the assessment tool may be. We will look at now how negotiating criteria and the selection of evidence can involve learners more in the assessment process. Negotiating the Criteria Boud (1986), maintains that the involvement of learners in making decisions about the criteria which are appropriately applied to their work and their making of judgements about achievements is the key characteristic of self-assessment. He further says that engagement in such activities helps to stimulate metacognitive skills and wean students from dependence on the assessments of others. Boud (1995) suggests two approaches to generating criteria; structured group activities and structured written schedules. The former is used to generate common criteria for a class, and I have found it a good way to start the process as the class generates and discusses potential criteria for inclusion. This can address some of the issues identified earlier such as; students reluctance to self-assess, supporting less able students, and poorly defined criteria. In general, for writing tasks there are four areas that are looked at, Grammar, Lexis, Coherency and Content. The discussion can help student s to become more aware of the criteria and assist them in the structured written schedules, which consists of three steps to guide each student in individualising the process. These steps are as follows: identifying the criteria which they consider appropriate to apply to their work, for example they may choose a number of the four areas or another such as format, thereby taking responsibility for learning and personalising it; clarifying these criteria, what specific area for example are they examining; and assessing the priority or emphasis which they wish to give to each criteria, encouraging deeper thinking and learning Once satisfactory criteria have been generated, students then use them to judge their own performance. From a checklist of the criteria, students may simply award themselves a mark with respect to each criterion chosen, and then make a statement justifying that mark (e.g. on format, I have written four paragraphs, including a clear introduction and conclusion). The emphasis on which criteria is important to the learner will change over time as they identify additional areas of weakness or choose to challenge themselves. The initial negotiation of the criteria occurs within the first two weeks of the program so learners can become familiar and start using them as quickly as possible. Learners discuss with teachers the criteria that they have chosen to be used in assessments, to eliminate potential confusion and to avail of support. The selection of evidence. The learners are involved in deciding on the form and quantity of evidence to be used in assessment, which allows for individuals to take more responsibility, by selecting from their own work and creating a portfolio, which will be explained in greater detail later. Learners indicate what evidence they have chosen, for the attainment of their goals, including essays written, as well as feedback received, and reflections. The negotiation of learning goals. Historically, the majority of assessment tools have been created based on external goals and imposed on the learners usually by the curriculum. However, it is important and appropriate that students are actively involved in setting class or personal goals and assessing themselves so that through this, they are more invested in learning and develop the skills required in how to learn, leading to the development of independent learners and critical thinkers. Self-assessment can provide a very personal and detailed record of learning. This negotiating of goals occurs early in the program so that the purposes and directions of the program are set to meet the learners self-perceived needs. Initially these are quite general but over time become more refined and individualistic as they are reviewed or change during the course. Goals may relate to the process as well as the outcomes of the course. Goals should be of a personal or context-specific nature (e.g. I want to be able to write a per sonal statement). Assessment approach on EPP On the EPP we have endeavoured to compile an assessment for learning approach, which supports the teaching/learning process, rather than assessments of learning which, simply measures student performance by tests and examinations. Tasks, which support higher order skills and support learners learning goals are utilised. Examples of tasks used are as follows; written essays, role plays, maintaining vocabulary and reflective learning journals. Some of the characteristics, and underlying reasons for the tasks are as follows: a clear rationale for the activity, so that learners can be actively engaged with a task which they accept is for learning (not passively following a set of instructions); explicit procedures so learners know what is expected of them, both in carrying out the tasks and in self-assessing; given that these were mainly new experiences for them, and that lack of training was identified as a major failing in previous studies; the task is constructed to allow significant elements of choice by the learners so that they can begin to own it and make it meaningful and worthwhile for them, taking greater responsibility for their own learning and learn to become independent of their teachers (Boud 1988); selection and reflection elements which reinforce student responsibility in taking charge of their learning and it provides a more valid, individualised assessment (Boud, 1995); reassurance so that learners can be honest about their own performance without the fear that they will expose information which can be used against them, and to address and cultural sensitivities or bias; tasks contribute to the final grade, although, based on the findings of previous studies, there is the potential for learners to overestimate or underestimating due to cultural bias, it was deemed necessary to do this to because of the general need for recognition by learners and to comply with external bodies; allocation of class time to complete the tasks and to enable learners to get assistance, this alleviates time pressures on the leaners and to also allow for sufficient training/retraining to take place so learners gain confidence in the process; Finally there was an emphasis on the process rather than just the product of assessment (Boud 1995). Students on the program are allowed to work and re-work their written drafts, based upon multiple sources of feedback, until such time that it is ready to be submitted allowing for students writing ability to be assessed in an ongoing, authentic context. Teachers were advised to exercise caution as tasks are usually completed over a period of time, both inside and outside the class and the degree students are assisted with feedback has the potential to affect validity (Boud, 1995). To address reliability, moderation where teachers and students scores are compared, can be used. However, if teachers moderate students results excessively, then students do not put much effort into being objective but simply rely on the teacher to do the assessing. At the same time, if teachers place the full responsibility on students, the danger is that there will always be some students whose self-assessment is not justified, however, the payoff is that the majority of students undertake their self-assessment much more seriously, and therefore learn a great deal more in the process of doing it (Boud, 1995). Portfolios of Evidence A recent trend in language assessment advocated by Boud (1995) and Race (2001) is the inclusion of portfolios in a course. A portfolio allows students to track their progress by compiling a selection of their work, selected from larger body of work. The portfolio is then presented with feedback comments and a reflective piece written by the student to justify the selection. Race (2001) points out that while most other forms of assessment are like snapshots of particular levels of development, portfolios can illustrate progression, reflecting how quickly students can learn from and implement feedback. The involvement of the student in reviewing and selecting is central, helping student-centred learning to become a reality (Calfee Freedman, 1996). Kathpalia and Heah (2008), stress the importance of reflection stating that a writing portfolio without reflection is merely a collection of written work which does not contribute to real learning. Portfolio Procedure At the beginning of the program, time is taken to ensure learners are provided with instructions on how to reflect on activities as well as filling self-assessment checklists through which they could improve their autonomy in writing. As identified earlier, training is key to the successful implementation of self-assessment. After the first two weeks, a simple class checklist was created for the purposes of self-assessment. An exemplar piece of writing was then given to the individual learners and they were asked to use the self-assessment checklist with this writing. The results were discussed with the class along with individual consultations. This process was then repeated with another piece of writing. Once learners were familiar with using the checklists, they could create their own, using the individual criteria chosen by themselves. After that, learners were then given a list of topics to choose from and were required to write one task during class and one outside the classroo m. Learners then had to assess their work using their individual checklists. Again, the general results were discussed with the whole class in addition to individual feedback sessions. After one month learners showed significant improvement in self-assessing as confidence grew and could begin to self-evaluate their own work independently, using their own checklists, and to add them to their body of work. Grades were awarded by the learner based on their individual, agreed negotiated criteria. Initially, each student awarded themselves a grade together with a justification for it based upon the evidence submitted. Students are encouraged to consult with their peers if they are lacking confidence and to focus on the process of evaluation rather than simply the grade. Independently of this, a teacher assessment is made using the agreed criteria on the evidence available but without knowledge of the students proposed grade. If the two proposed grades did not fall within the same band, a discussion took place during which each party justifies their grade. Agreement generally resulted, but there is provision for final arbitration by a third party if needed. Race (2001) argues that portfolios can be high on validity as it is possible to assess appropriate evidence of achievement relating more directly to intended learning outcomes, than (for example) can be achieved just with written exams. Race continues by saying that portfolios contain evidence reflecting a wide range of skills and attributes, and can reflect students work at its best, rather than just a cross-section on a particular occasion, such as one-off exams. He cautions that ownership of the work can sometimes be in doubt and the inclusion of an oral assessment or interview, can validate the origin of the contents of portfolios. There are however, some issues with portfolio use, with McMillan (2004) and Race (2001) highlighting that assessing portfolios is time-consuming, requiring time for both designing the portfolio and preparing rubrics for scoring. In addition to that, the teacher has to train learners to self-assess their work adequately, which often entails a one-to-one conference with each student so that portfolio implementation is done properly. As McMillan puts it, portfolio assessment requires time, expertise, and commitment (2004, p. 238), all of which are not always available. Reflective Learning Journals Reflective learning journals are another important aspect of self-assessment and the EPP, with evidence showing that good learners have better metacognitive processes than poor learners (Ertmer and Newby, 1996). Developing reflective skills is an important aspect of self-assessment, leading to a reflective practitioner which according to Schà ¶n (1987), includes: reflection-in-action that is immediate, short term, concerned with a devising a new strategy for approaching the situation; and reflection-on-action, typically undertaken some time after an event has occurred. The challenge we had was ways of incorporating reflective activities in the course. Boud et al, (1983) suggests that learners maintain a journal, to reflect on their learning, over a sustained period, maintained with the intention of improving or supporting learning. Records can include both academic as well as personal development with students generating records on such items as: their objectives and how these have been addressed and achieved; expectations, attitudes, values, beliefs, and skills. The records can start off structured but may become more unstructured as learners take ownership. Morrison (1996) identified some matters which need to be considered regarding the reflective activity: not all students find reflection easy; there may also be cultural issues where the concept is particularly difficult to grasp; and what is the depth of reflection required. A means of addressing these is to provide real examples of reflective writing, as well as some structured questions to the learners. Allowing for adequate practice and providing opportunities for feedback can also alleviate any potential problems. In terms of assessing the work, initially a journal may be considered satisfactory and passed, or not yet satisfactory and not yet passed, avoiding some of the difficult judgements about work that may be very diverse and / or creative (Morrison 1996). We found that this can also encourage gr eater participation as leaners feel that they are not being scrutinised about what they are writing. Evaluation of using Self-assessment in EPP One of the greatest challenges was with the concept of criteria where both the teachers and learners preferred to rely on well-known externally imposed criteria rather than take ownership of self-generated criteria, negotiated in the classroom. Indeed, there was also a strong resistance from the institute itself, however the future success of this approach the acceptance and willingness of all the participants. From an learners perspective Each term, a survey concerning the course in general and the use of the self-assessments is conducted to gather the views of the learners. For the most part, after the initial introductory phase, learners find self-assessment a useful tool which helps them focus on their own learning: I found it very difficult in the beginning but now I know it will be good for my future study. Difficult to start but then I started to enjoy it when I realised what I had achieved. Students commented on the tasks in general (reflective journal; self-assessment): A very interesting and different experience for me. I learned how disorganised I am and that I need to change. I now have more confidence in my work before I submit it. Students were very positive on the experience: Amazing, I had no idea that I had achieved so much until I reviewed my journal at the end. I now really enjoy reflecting on what I have done not just memorising information. Students rarely, if ever find the task of self-assessment easy, especially in a Chinese society where the teacher is traditionally viewed as having ultimate control. Some learners are naturally more self-reflective or self-critical than others, and some are more willing to share their learning than others. It provides an opportunity for students to reflect on their learning and think about the applications of ideas in their own situations. It is common for them to report that they only start to become aware of what they have learned when they looked back on the course in a systematic fashion, in preparing to submit their portfolios. Two major obstacles that learners had difficulty overcoming was the doubt in their ability to assess themselves and the objection to the concept of self-grading, arguing that grading should be the sole responsibility of the teacher, which is similar to studies mentioned earlier (Leach 2012, Brown and Knight 1994) however, we feel this has been addressed. From the Teachers Perspective Despite the increase in using self-assessment, Ross (2006) explains that teachers still retain doubts about the value and accuracy of the technique, saying many teachers holding the view that learners are incapable of self-assessment believing that learners are unable to appreciate or understand the process. In our situation some of the more senior teachers resisted the change in the power dynamic that self-assessment entails as it not only changes the role of the teacher but also the relationship between the teacher and learner. A secondary issue we experienced was when the teachers themselves are unsure of or are having difficulty in interpreting criteria and are therefore reluctant to negotiate with the learners. However, I have found that through the process of discussion the criteria ultimately become clearer. From my perspective Producing a portfolio of evidence has the advantage of students summarised and demonstrating their learning at many different stages of learning and has been a valuable takeaway from the program for the learners. Now before submitting a written piece of work, many learners have gone through the process of self-assessing and therefore have formed an educated opinion of how good they think the work is which leads to reduced anxiety. Overall, assessment portfolios are beneficial to students. They give them the opportunity to reflect, and to develop their abilities in assessing their own work and understanding. Thus, learners end up eventually taking responsibility for their own learning and have continuing opportunities for using their creativity and imagination and increasing the quality of their work (Barton and Collins 1997). On reflection, I believe that although portfolios require considerable work on the part of both the students and the teacher, they provide a much more effective assessment tool than those used traditionally because the ongoing and developing nature of the portfolio provides a much clearer indication not only of what the learners have achieved (the learning process) but also what the teacher has enabled the learners to achieve (the teaching process

Essay --

Not surprising that The Magic Flute has been staged by contemporary innovative directors- it’s craziness makes it ideal for being a director’s medium. Modern opera criticized for being boring or whatever, but here are three directors who, although they faced criticism themselves, approached opera with fresh perspective and with a desire to change what they felt where stiff conventions that no longer Richard Wagner was supremely interested in the music of other composers, both that of his contemporaries and those who had influenced the operatic stage before him. As an opera composer and librettist himself, he listened to the offerings of other composers carefully, forming his opinions with even more caution. In his anaylsis of Mozart’s work, Wagner credited the composer with â€Å"creating true German opera† Modern music critics continue to scratch their heads when considering Wagner’s gushing remarks on Mozart. In a review posted to the Flos Carmeli Arts Blog on February 26, 2010, Steven Riddle describes Mozart as a German composer who writes music that is â€Å"flexible, nimble, light and lovely†, while Wagner’s is â€Å"like a beautiful bludgeon- slow and ponderous†. While they possess little similarities in style as composers, it was not simply Mozart’s music that enamored Wagner. The Magic Flute inspired Wagner with its characters and their keen development, as well as Mozart’s clear voice as an interpreter of the drama within the music. He praised Mozart for his ability to create a genre that was unlike any previously seen in the German Opera. The Magic Flute was an opera that lived between Opera Seria and Opera buffa (both common in German opera at the time), but also contained many musical styles of the ornate Italian opera. ... ...e gaps caused by heavy editing to the libretto. He gave voice only to the most important characters, Pamina and Tamino, Papageno and Papagena, the Queen of the Night, Sarastro and Monostatos. Particularly bold was his cutting of the Three Ladies and the Three Spirit Children, who he deemed merely mechanisms of exposition and magic. What Brook yearned to create where characters who were true individuals as opposed to singers in a pageant of the superfluous. His work with the Queen of The Night particularly reached this goal. While she is clearly the villainess of Flute, Mozart’s music gives her a complexity that Brook highlighted. Her revenge aria, in which she mourns the loss of he daughter to Sarastro, is mostly known for it’s treacherous colatura. In Brook’s Flute, the aria began softly and tenderly, reaveling the bevered mother underneath the evil Queen.

End of Poverty Guide Essay

Jeffrey Sachs was a professor of Economics at Harvard for 38 years and was a major consultant for many nations. He now heads the Earth Institute. His views on the causes of poverty are very different than what is normally thought or presented. His book has 18 chapters which are broken down as follows: †¢ Chapters 1-4 present an overview of the problem and overall solutions to poverty. †¢ Chapters 5-10 details Sachs’ experience in working with Bolivia, Poland, Russia, China, India, and Africa, solving major economic problems. †¢ Chapter 11 deals with the Millennium Development Goals and 9/11 †¢ Chapter 12 deals with on-the-ground solutions, which in reality is a high priced CHE. †¢ Chapters 13-18 map out the details of his solutions. Sachs throws out the normal ways of thinking about the causes of poverty in countries, for instance that people are lazy or stupid, or the countries are not democratic, and that corruption is wide-spread. Fifty percent of the world’s population exists on less than one dollar per day. He believes that much of the problem is structural, which can only be dealt with through the help of the rich countries. Sachs believes, first of all, that all current debt owed by the poor countries should be cancelled. Secondly, if the rich countries would increase their development aid from .2% to .7% there would be enough money available to increase the economic growth so that all countries would no longer be extremely poor. If MAI is to become known as an agency which teaches a new way of dealing with poverty, then we need to become aware of this book and Sachs understanding and approach to poverty. Chapter Twelve really speaks to CHE. I have tried to review what has appeared to me to be the most salient points, chapter by chapter. All chapters are not treated equally. I primarily do this exercise for myself to help me understand the key points from the book. If they are of any help to others, then that is a plus. I have gone into more detail in the other synopsis I have done because of the possible guidance this book can give us for a new paradigm for dealing with poverty individually, locally, nationally and globally (which in reality we are already on the road in doing). Some things are both structural and governmental issues and I am not suggesting that we get involved in these, but change must begin at the village level and then we can scale up our strengths from there. Chapter One–A Global Family Portrait Sachs sets the stage for his thesis and book using examples of Malawi, Bangladesh, India, and China to show different levels of poverty. He talks abut the ascending ladder of economic development for countries. †¢ Lowest are those who are too ill, hungry, or destitute to get even a foot on the bottom rung of the development ladder. They make up the bottom 1/6 of the world’s population, or one billion people. They are the poorest of the poor and live on less than $1 a day. †¢ A few rungs up the ladder at the upper end of the low-income countries are another 1.5 billion people. They live just above the subsistence level. These two groups make up 40% of the world’s population. CHE targets both of these groups, and especially with the first group. †¢ Another 2.5 billion include the IT workers of India. Most of them live in the cities and are moderately poor. †¢ One billion or one-sixth of the world come from the rich developed countries. Sachs says the greatest tragedy of our time is that one-sixth of the world’s population is not even on the first rung of the ladder. A large number of the extremely poor in level one are caught in the poverty trap and cannot escape it. They are trapped by disease, physical isolation, climate stress, environmental degradation, and extreme poverty itself. He breaks poverty into three levels: †¢ Extreme poverty means households cannot meet basic needs for survival. This only occurs in developing countries. World Bank says their income is less than $1 a day. †¢ Moderate poverty is where needs are generally just barely met. World Bank says this represents countries where their income falls between $1 and $2 per day. †¢ Relative poverty generally describes household income level at being below a given percentage of the average national income. You find this in developed countries. He then presents the Challenge of our Generation which includes: †¢ Helping the poorest of the poor escape the misery of extreme poverty and help them begin their climb up the ladder of economic development. †¢ Ensuring all who are the world’s poor, including moderately poor, have a chance to climb higher in economic development. He believes that the following can be done: †¢ Meet the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. †¢ End extreme poverty by 2025. †¢ To ensure well before 2025, that all of the world’s poor countries can make reliable progress up the ladder of economic development. †¢ To accomplish this with modest financial help from the riches countries, which will be more than is now provided per capita. Chapter Two–The Spread of Economic Prosperity Sachs uses several graphs in this chapter. I will not go into detail on these, but I will point out some salient points: †¢ All regions of the world were poor in 1820. †¢ All regions experienced economic progress, though some much more than others. †¢ Today’s richest regions experienced by far the greatest economic progress. As an example, Africa has only grown at .7% a year while the USA at 1.7%. This may not seem much, but when compounded year-by-year, it results in the great differences between the two. †¢ The key fact today is not the transfer of income from one region to another, but rather that the overall increase in the world’s income is happening at different rates in different regions. Until the 1700’s, the world was remarkably poor by today’s standards. A major change was the industrial revolution coming to certain regions and not to others. The steam engine was a decisive turning point because it mobilized the vast store of primary energy which unlocked the mass production of goods and services. Modern energy fueled every aspect of the economic takeoff. As coal fueled industry, industry fueled political power. Britain’s industrial breakthrough created a huge military and financial advantage. But Britain also had existing individual initiative and social mobility than most other countries of the world. They also had a strengthening of institution and liberty. Britain also had a major geographical advantage–one of isolation and protection of the sea, in addition to access to the oceans for worldwide transportation for their goods and importation of other countries’ goods. Sachs then goes on to outline what has fostered major economic growth: †¢ Modern economic growth is accompanied by people moving to the cities, or urbanization. This means fewer and fewer people produce the food that is required for the country. Hopefully, food price per farmer decreases as larger plots are farmed more productively. This also means sparsely populated land makes good sense when many farms are needed to grow the crops, but sparse land makes little sense when more and more people are engaged in manufacturing in the cities. †¢ Modern economic growth fostered a revolution in social mobility which affected social ranking of people. A fixed social order depends on status quo and agrarian population. †¢ There is a change in gender roles with economic development. This affects living conditions as well as family structure. The desired number of children decreases. †¢ The division of labor increases. By specializing in one activity instead of many, producti vity increases. The diffusion of economic growth occurred in three main forms: †¢ From Britain to its colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand. (It was therefore relatively straight-forth to transfer British technologies, food crops and even legal institutions.) †¢ A second diffusion took place within Europe that ran from Western Europe to Eastern Europe, and from Northern Europe to Southern Europe. †¢ The third wave of diffusion was from Europe to Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Sachs believes that the single most important reason for prosperity spread is the transmission of technology and the ideas underlying it. The technological advances came at different times. †¢ The first wave revolved around the invention of the steam engine which led to factory-producing goods. †¢ The second wave in the 19th century was led by the introduction of the rail and telegraph. It also included the introduction of steam ships instead of sailing ones, and the construction of the Suez Canal. †¢ The third wave was initiated by electrification of industry and urban society. Along with this came the development of the internal combustion engine. †¢ The fourth wave came in the 20th century with the globalization of the world due to new methods of communication starting in Europe. †¢ There came a time of a great rupture which took place with the start of World War I, and sidetracked economic development for awhile. This led to the Great Depression which led to World War II. †¢ A fifth wave took place right after World War II, and in 1991. It began with the massive efforts of reconstruction of Europe and Japan right after World War II. Trade barriers began to come down. There were three worlds: the first was the developed West, the second was comprised of Socialist countries, and the third was made up of undeveloped countries (which were made up of the old colony countries). The world therefore progressed on three tracks. The problem was that the second and third worlds did not share in economic growth and actually went backward. By closing their economies, they closed themselves off from economic development. So what did this mean to the poorest of the poor countries? †¢ They did not begin their economic growth until decades later. †¢ They faced geographical barriers of being land-locked †¢ They faced the brutal exploitation of the colonial powers. †¢ They made disastrously bad choices in their national policies. Chapter Three–Why Some Countries Fail In this chapter, Sachs looks at the cause of poverty and possible solutions. He first deals with, how a family’s per-capita income might increase: †¢ The first way is through savings– either in cash or similar assets like animals, etc. †¢ The second way is shifting to crops that bring a higher yield per hectare, and then adding value to the crop (which is what we teach in our PAD training). †¢ The third way is adopting new technology, which improves their productivity. †¢ The fourth way is resource boom, which means to move to a much larger and more fertile farm. The flip side of increasing their economic growth is by decreasing their per capita income which is more than just the opposite of the above factors: †¢ Lack of savings is of course one way to reduce per capita income. †¢ Lack of trade, meaning that a household hears of the new crop but cannot take advantage of it and stays with what they have. †¢ Technological reversal is when something like HIV hits an area and children lose their parents etc. †¢ Natural resource decline is where the land becomes less and less fertile producing less and less crops. †¢ Adverse Productivity Shock is where a natural disaster hits like a drought, tsunami, earthquake, typhoon, etc. †¢ Population growth lessens per capita income where the father has two hectares of land and it is divided among his five sons at his death. Now Sachs begins to get into the true heart of poverty on a country level: †¢ The poverty trap itself is where poverty is so extreme that the poor do not have the ability by themselves to get out of the mess. †¢ Physical geography plays a major role where countries are land-locked with poor or no roads, a lack of navigable rivers, or situated in mountain ranges or deserts with an extremely high transportation cost. The low productivity of the land is another factor in the geography. †¢ The fiscal trap is where the government lacks the resources to pay for the necessary infrastructure on which economic growth depends. †¢ Government failure happens when the government is not concentrating on high priority infrastructure and social service projects. †¢ Cultural or religious barriers especially as it relates to gender inequality play a significant role in dampening economic growth. †¢ Geopolitics such as trade barriers can impede economic growth. †¢ Lac k of innovation and technology plays a role if people cannot try new things because they cannot risk failure, or because they do not have funds to do so. Sachs believes that over the span of two centuries, the lack of using new technology is why the richest and poorest countries have diverged. †¢ He shows a scatter-gram graph showing there is a demographic trap as well. The higher the fertility rate, the lower rate of economic growth there is in a country. When they have too many children, they cannot invest in education, nutrition, or health, except maybe for the oldest male. One of the best ways to lower the number of children per family is through the education of the girls. Sachs then goes into detail in putting countries into different classes. He points out that none of the rich countries in North American, Western Europe or East Asia have failed to grow economically. All the problems lie in the developing world where 45 of these countries had a fall in GDP. Not all of these countries are in sub-Saharan Africa. He also points out that the oil-exporting and ex-Soviet countries, all high income countries, did not increase their economic growth evenly, primarily because of their authoritarian political structure. He also points out that the most important factor is agriculture. Those countries that used high yield cereals per hectare and that used high levels of fertilizers are the poor countries that tended to experience economic growth. In Africa, the land is much less densely populated but they use neither high yield cereals nor fertilizers and they had falling food production per capita. But they also have far less roads for transporting extra crops to markets and they depend on rainfall which is generally more erratic than high-producing agricultural countries. He also goes on to point out the following: †¢ Economic growth is rarely uniformly distributed across a country. †¢ Governments also fail in their role in allowing growth that might enrich the rich households, while the poorest living in the same area seldom seem to benefit. †¢ Another detriment to growth can be culture especially as it relates to women inequality. Chapter Four–Clinical Economics (CE) Sachs compares clinical economics to clinical medicine. He lays out five parameters for Clinical Economics: †¢ CE is made up of complex systems. The failure in one system can lead to cascades of failures in other parts of the economy. You therefore need to deal with very broad and multiple issues. †¢ CE practitioners need to learn the art of clinical diagnosis. The CE practitioner must hone-in on the key underlying causes of economic distress and prescribe appropriate remedies that are tailor-made to each country’s condition. †¢ Treatment needs to be viewed in family terms, not individual terms. The entire world is part of each country’s family. If countries work together they can have far more impact than working in isolation. †¢ Good CE practice requires monitoring and evaluation. More than just asking if the goals are being achieved, but also asking â€Å"why?† and â€Å"why not?† †¢ The development community lacks the requisite ethical and professional standards. Economic development does not take its work with the sense of responsibility that the task requires. It demands that honest advice be given. He points out where economic development practice has gone wrong: †¢ The rich countries say, â€Å"Poverty is your own fault. Be like us, have a free market, be entrepreneurial, fiscally responsible and your problems will be gone†. †¢ The IMF period of structural adjustment which supposedly dealt with the four maladies of poor governance, excessive government intervention in the markets, excessive government spending, and too much state ownership were not solved by the IMF prescription of belt tightening, privatization, liberalization, and good governance. †¢ The responsibility for poverty reduction was assumed to lie entirely with poor countries themselves. He then lays out his differential diagnosis for poverty reduction. He believes the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) goes a long way in reducing poverty. Once the diagnosis is completed, a proper treatment regime must be carried out. In doing differential diagnosis, questions must be asked in each one of the following areas: †¢ Identify and map the extent of extreme poverty– from the household level all the way up through the community to the country to the state– in all areas of life. †¢ The second set of questions deals with the economic policy framework. †¢ The third set deals with the fiscal framework. †¢ Fourth deals with physical geography and human ecology. †¢ Fifth, the questions deal with the patterns of governance. History has shown that democracy is not a prerequisite for economic development. †¢ Sixth are questions which deal with cultural barriers that hinder economic development. †¢ The last are questions that are related to geopolitics which involves a country’s security and relationship with the rest of the world. The next six chapters, five through ten, deal with specific countries that have gone through this process, and their results. His results are quite impressive. I will not deal much with each country, but an individual chapter might be of interest to the RC involved if he is interested in such things. Chapter Five–Bolivia’s High Rate of Inflation Problem: A hyperinflation rate of 3000% (30 times) between July 1984 and July 1985 with a longer term hyperinflation rate of 24,000%. Lessons Learned: †¢ Stabilization is a complex process. Ending a large budget deficit may be the first step but controlling the underlying forces that cause the budget deficit is much more complex. †¢ Macroeconomics tools are limited in their power. †¢ Successful change requires a combination of technocratic knowledge, bold political leadership, and broad social participation. †¢ Success requires not only bold reforms at home, but also financial help from abroad. †¢ Poor countries must demand their due. Chapter Six–Poland’s Return to Europe Problem: By the end of 1989, Poland had partially suspended its international debt payments. The economy was suffering from high rate of rising inflation and there was a deepening political crisis. Sachs’ approach in Poland, as in other countries, was built on five pillars: †¢ Stabilization–ending the high rate of inflation, establishing stability and convertible currency. †¢ Liberalization–allowing markets to function by legalizing private economic activity (ending price controls and establishing necessary laws). †¢ Privatization– identifying private owners for assets currently held by the state. †¢ Social net–pensions and other benefits for the elderly and poor were established. †¢ Institutional Harmonization–adopting, step-by-step, the economic laws, procedures, and institutions. Lessons Learned: †¢ He learned how a country’s fate is crucially determined by its specific linkages to the rest of the world. †¢ Again the importance of the basic guidance concept for broad-based economic transformation, not to stand alone with separate solutions. †¢ Saw again the practical possibilities of large-scale thinking †¢ He learned not to take â€Å"no† for an answer, press on with your guidance. †¢ By the time a country has fallen into deep crisis, it requires some external help to get back on track. †¢ This help may be in the form of getting the basics right which includes debt cancellation and help to bolster confidence in the reforms. Chapter Seven–Russia’s Struggle for Normalcy Problem: The Soviet Union relied almost entirely on its oil and gas exports to earn foreign exchange, and on its use of oil and gas to run its industrial economy. In the mid- 1980’s, the price of oil and gas plummeted and the Soviet Union’s oil production began to fall. Sachs suggested three actions of the West (but generally they were ignored by the West): †¢ A stabilization fund for the ruble. †¢ Immediate suspension of debt repayment followed by cancellation of their debts. †¢ A new aid program for transformation focusing on the most vulnerable sectors of the Russian economy. Lesson Learned: †¢ Despite much turmoil and rejection much went right so that eventually Russia became a lopsided market economy, still focused on oil and gas. †¢ Russia has a gigantic land mass which causes it to have few linkages with other nations of the world. †¢ Their population densities are low and agrarian and food production per hectare remains low. Over history, 90% of the population has been rural, with cities few and far between. This hinders economic growth. †¢ Without adequate aid, the political consensus around the reforms was deeply undermined, thereby compromising the reform process. Chapter Eight–China Catching Up after a Half Millennium Being Isolated Problem: China lost its economic and cultural lead that it had in its early history. Sachs points out five dates which caused this: †¢ 1434 China had been the technological superpower. This year Emperor Ming closed China to the rest of the world and stopped their advanced ship fleets from going out to the world. †¢ 1839 China finally ended its economic isolation. †¢ 1898 Several young reformers tried to gain power and were stopped. †¢ 1911 Ching Dynasty collapsed and by 1916 China was falling into civil unrest. Their military took control of the empire. †¢ 1949 the rise of the Maoist Movement. He then compares China to Russia: †¢ The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had massive foreign debt while China did not. †¢ China has a large coastline that supported its export growth, while Russia and Eastern Europe do not. †¢ China had the benefit of large off-shore Chinese business communities which acted as foreign investors, while Russia and Eastern Europe did not. †¢ The Soviet was experiencing a drastic decline on their main export product, oil and gas. †¢ The Soviet Union had gone further down the industrialization road than China. Chapter Nine–India Market Reform Which Was the Triumph of Hope Over Fear Problem: India was controlled by a business, British East India Company, which was driven by greed, and it did everything to maximize profit for the company at the expense of the country. Though India’s population throughout history has been Hindu, vast numbers of Muslims and Christians lived in and sometimes dominated the land. India had poor political and social structures because the land was broken into many small kingdoms governed by many different leaders. In addition, India has the caste-system of stratification of peoples. With independence from the British in 1947, Nehru looked for a path to self- sufficiency and democratic socialism. The Green Revolution had a major impact on the country as high yield crops were introduced. By 1994, India now faced four major challenges: †¢ Reforms needed to be extended especially in liberalization and the development of new and better systems. †¢ India needed to invest heavily in infrastructure †¢ India needed to invest more in health and education of its people, especially the lower castes. †¢ India needed to figure out how to pay for the needed infrastructure. Lessons Learned: †¢ The 21st century is likely to be the era when this poor country’s economic development is substantially reversed. †¢ The country has announced electricity for all as well as essential health services and drinking water for everyone. These are achievable goals and the basis for much-needed investment. †¢ The Hindus did not stifle growth. The Green Revolution and then market reforms overrode the rigidness of the caste-system and the slow growth of the 1950’s and 1960’s. †¢ India has become increasingly urbanized, thereby further weakening the caste-system. †¢ Democracy is wearing away age-old social hierarchies. †¢ India has grabbed the potential of the internet and IT and is leading the way for developing nations in this regard. †¢ India’s varied geography and its miles and miles of shoreline fosters its market position for the manufacture of products. Chapter Ten–Africa and the Dying Problem: Three centuries of slave trade were followed by a century of colonial rule which left Africa bereft of educated citizens and leaders, basic infrastructure, and public health facilities. The borders followed arbitrary lines, not historic tribal lines which now divided former empires, ethnic groups, ecosystems, watersheds, and resource deposits. The West was not willing to invest in African economic development. Corruption was not the central cause for their economic failure as he showed. In the 1980’s, HIV became the worse killer of mankind. In 2001, life expectancy stood at 47 years, while East Asia stood at 69 years, and developed countries at 78 years. Sachs spends time looking at the major diseases of malaria, TB, diarrhea, and HIV. He says poverty causes disease and disease causes poverty. Lessons Learned: †¢ Good governance and market reform alone are not sufficient to generate growth if a country is in a poverty trap. †¢ Geography has conspired with economics to give Africa a particularly weak hand. Africa lacks navigable rivers with access to the ocean for easy transport and trade. †¢ Africa lacks irrigation and depends on rainfall for their crops. †¢ Farmers lack access roads, markets, and fertilizers, while soils have been long depleted of their nutrients. Chapter Eleven–The Millennium, 9/11, and the United Nations. The beginning part of this chapter deals with the Millennium Development Goals. Sachs says that the goals and commitment to reach them by 2015 convey the hope that extreme poverty, disease, and environmental degradation could be alleviated with the wealth, the new technologies, and global awareness with which we entered the 21st century. He says the first seven goals call for sharp cuts in poverty, disease, and environmental degradation, while the eighth goal is essentially a commitment to global partnership. Because you have all seen them, I am not including them here. Regarding 9/11, he says we need to keep it in perspective. On 9/11, 3000 people died for once and for all, but 10,000 people die each day from diseases that are preventable. He believes we need to address the deeper roots of terrorism of which extreme poverty is an important element. The rich world needs to turn its efforts to a much greater extent from military strategies to economic development. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt spoke of freedoms we were fighting for in WWII and for which we still should be attempting to accomplish: †¢ Freedom of speech and expression everywhere in the world. †¢ Freedom for every person to worship God in his own way everywhere in the world. †¢ Freedom from want which translates into economic development. †¢ Freedom from fear which translates into a worldwide reduction in armament, a reduction to such a point that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor. One major thing he is suggesting is that the rich countries elevate their giving to .7% of their GNP from the average of .2% it is today. The rest of the chapter is about President Bush and the USA policies and actions. Chapter Twelve–On-The-Ground Solutions for Ending Poverty This chapter is really talking about CHE, but Sachs does not realize it. He says that the world’s challenge is not to overcome laziness and corruption but rather to take on geographic isolation, disease, vulnerability to climate shocks, etc. with new systems of political responsibility that can get the job done. He talks about a village of less than 1,000 in western Kenya, in a Sauri sub-location (in Siaya district in Nyanza province) that he visited, which opened his eyes. He found what we find place after place– that they are impoverished, but they are capable and resourceful. Though struggling to survive, presently they are not dispirited but determined to improve their situation. He then goes on to describe the needs of a rural African community, the same type of community that we deal with every day, as shown in the abundance of applications we receive for CHE. A major problem, he feels, is that the farmers do not have the money to buy fertilizer that would impact their crop productivity drastically. Also they have no school or clinic. He then begins to calculate what it would cost per person to bring a school and teachers, simple clinic and staff, medicines, agriculture inputs such as seed and fertilizer, safe drinking water and simple sanitation, and power transport and communication services. The total cost for Sauri is about $350,000 a year, which converts to $70 a person per year, which could revolutionize the community. If he did CHE, the total cost and per person cost would be greatly reduced. He then goes ahead and extrapolates this up for the country of Kenya to $1.5 billion. At the same time he points out that Kenya’s debt service is $600 million a year and that it needs to be cancelled. But one problem that donors talk about is corruption needing to be eliminated. If countries do not eliminate corruption, they would not be eligible for relief. Also, a budget and management system need to be designed that will reach the villages and be monitorable, governable, and scalable–a set of interventions to ensure good governance on such a historic project. The key to this is to empower village-based community organizations to oversee village services. Most of what he says in this chapter sounds like CHE to me, but we can do it at even a lower cost and we have the experience to implement it. That is why I said earlier that we need to talk to Sachs about CHE. He then goes on with this theme but changes the venue from rural to urban in Mumbai, India in a slum community built smack up against the railroad tracks, one-house deep. He points out the outstanding needs are not latrines, running water, nor safety from trains, but empowerment so they can negotiate with the government. He then mentions that several groups have been found and empowered to do this in this community. Again sounds like CHE for urban poor. Sachs says what this community needs is investments in the individual and basic infra-structure that can empower people to be healthier, better educated, and more productive in the work force. CHE deals with the individual side of the equation. He ends this chapter by discussing the problem of scale. He says everything must start with the basic village. The key is connecting these basic units together into a global network that reaches from impoverished communities to the very centers of power and back again. This, too, is what we are talking about when we describe scaling-up and creating a movement and then forming it into councils and collaborative groups. He believes the rich world would readily provide the missing finances but they will wonder how to ensure that the money made available would really reach the poor and that there would be results. He says we need a strategy for scaling up the investments that will end poverty, including governance that empowers the poor while holding them accountable. I believe CHE fits his prescription. Chapter Thirteen–Making the Investments Needed to End Poverty Sachs says the extreme poor lack six kinds of capital: †¢ Human Capital: health, nutrition, and skills needed for each person to be productive. †¢ Business Capital: the machinery, facilities, and motorized transport used in agriculture, industry and services. †¢ Infrastructure Capital: water and sanitation, airports and sea ports, and telecommunications systems that are critical inputs for business productivity. †¢ Natural Capital: arable land, healthy soils, biodiversity, and well- functioning ecosystems that provide the environmental services need by human society. †¢ Public Institutional Capital: commercial law, judicial systems, government services, and policing, that underpin the peaceful and prosperous division of labor. †¢ Knowledge Capital: the scientific and technological know-how that raises productivity in business output and the promotion of physical and natural capital. He spends several pages on charts showing income flow. He also uses the example of child survival and how it applies to the six kinds of capital. He makes the point that even in the poorest societies, primary education alone is no longer sufficient. He says all youth should have a minimum of 9 years of education. He says technical capacity must be in the whole of society from the bottom up. He talks about trained community health workers and the role they can play. Villages around the world should be helped in adult education involving life and death issues such as HIV. The main challenges now is NOT to show what works in small villages or districts but rather to scale up what works to encompass a whole country, even the world. Again sounds like CHE and where we are going. He goes through several examples where major diseases are being dealt with such as malaria, river blindness, and polio, as well as spread of family planning. He also briefly talks about the cell phone revolution by the poor in Bangladesh and how East Asia has established Export Processing Zones, all of which are improving the life of the poorest of poor nations. Chapter Fourteen–A Global Compact to End Poverty He says the poorest countries themselves must take seriously the problem of ending poverty and need to devote a greater share of their national resources to accomplish this. Many poor countries pretend to reform while rich countries pretend to help them. The chronic lack of donor financing robs the poor countries of their poverty-fighting zeal. We are stuck in a show play that is not real. There are two sides in a compact. In this compact, there should be the commitment in the rich countries to help all poor countries where the collective will to be responsible partners in the endeavor is present. For the other poor countries where authoritarian or corrupt regimes hold sway, the consequences for the population are likely to be tragic but the rich countries have their limits also. He spends time looking at several countries that have Poverty Reduction Strategies where some are working and some not. Ghana is a star in his book. He says a true MDG-based poverty reduction strategy would have five parts: †¢ A Differential Diagnosis which includes identifying policies and investments that the country needs to achieve the MDGs. †¢ An Investment Plan which shows the size, timing and costs of the required investments. †¢ A Financial Plan to fund the Investment Plan, including the calculation of the MDG financing gap, the portion of the financial needs that donors will have to fill. †¢ A Donor Plan which gives multi-year commitments from donors for meeting the MDGs. †¢ A Public Management Plan that outlines the mechanisms of governance and public administration that will help implement the expanded public investment plan. During the 1980’s and 1990’s, the IMF forced Structural Readjustment on the poor countries which did not work. The poor were asked to pay all the expenses for new services. They then moved to a compromise called Social Marketing where the poor were asked to pay a portion of the expense. But neither plan worked because the poor did not have enough even to eat, much less pay for electricity. He says a sound management plan should include the following: †¢ Decentralize. Investments are needed in all the villages and the details for what is needed needs to be established at the village level through local committees, not the national capitol or Washington DC. †¢ Training. The public sector lacks the talent to oversee the scaling up process. Training programs for capacity building should be part of the strategy. †¢ Information Technology. The use of information technology–computers, e-mail and mobile phones– needs to increase drastically because of the dramatic increase of knowledge that needs to be transmitted. †¢ Measurable Benchmarks. Every MDG based poverty reduction strategy should be supported by quantitative benchmarks tailored to national conditions, needs, and data availability. †¢ Audits. No country should receive greater funding unless the money can be audited. †¢ Monitoring and Evaluation. Each country must prepare to have investments monitored and evaluated. He then goes through the following Global Policies for Poverty Reduction: †¢ The Debt Crisis. The poorest countries are unable to repay their debt, let alone carry the interest. Therefore, for each country that agrees to the guidelines noted previously, their debt must be cancelled if there is to be true poverty reduction. †¢ Global trade Policy. Poor countries need to increase their exports to the rich countries and thereby earn foreign exchange in order to import capital goods from the rich countries. Yet trade is not enough. The policy must include both aid and trade. The end of agriculture subsidies is not enough for this to happen. †¢ Science for Development. The poor are likely to be ignored by the international scientific community unless special effort is made to include things that help the poor. It is more critical to identify the priority needs for scientific research in relation to the poor than to mobilize the donor community to spur that research forward. That would include research in tropical agriculture, energy systems, climate forecasting, water management, and sustainable management of ecosystems. †¢ Environmental stewardship. The poorest of poor nations are generally innocent victims of major long-term ecosystem degradation. The rich countries must live up to the ecology agreements they have signed. The rich countries will have to give added financial assistance to the poor countries to enable them to deal with the ecosystem problems. The rich countries will have to invest more in climate research. Chapter Fifteen–Can The Rich Afford to Help the Poor? He asks the question â€Å"Can the rich countries help the poor?†, and his answer is â€Å"Can they afford not to do so?† He gives five reasons that show that the current effort is so modest. †¢ The numbers of extremely poor have declined close to 50% two generations ago to 33% a generation ago to 20% today. †¢ The goal is to end extreme poverty, not all poverty, and to close the gap between the rich and the poor. †¢ Success in ending the poverty trap will be much easier than it appears. Too little has been done to identify specific, proven, low-cost interventions that can make a difference in living standards and economic growth (CHE does this). †¢ The rich world is vastly rich. What seemed out of reach a generation or two ago is now such a small fraction of the vastly expanded income of the rich world. †¢ Our tools are more powerful than ever, including computers, internet, mobile phones, etc. He then spends time in doing calculations to show how this can be accomplished. First he starts with the World Bank. They estimate that meeting basic needs requires $1.08 per person per day. Currently, the average income of the extremely poor is 77 cents per day, creating a shortfall of 31 cents per day or $113 per person per year. He then shows that this represents only .6% of a nation’s GNP. The MDG target which many countries have agreed to is .7% of their GNP. Later on, he shows that the USA is only spending .15% for aid to the world. Sachs then spends time on a six-step process to do a needs assessment to come up with the real number needed: †¢ Identify the package of basic needs. †¢ Identify for each country the current unmet needs of the population. †¢ Calculate the costs of meeting the unmet needs through investments, taking into account future population growth. †¢ Calculate the part of the investments that can’t be financed by the country itself. †¢ Calculate the MDG financing gap that must be covered by donors. †¢ Assess the size of the donor contribution relative to donor income. He proposes that interventions are required to meet the following basic needs: †¢ Primary education for all children with a designated target ratio of pupils to teachers. †¢ Nutrition program for all vulnerable populations. †¢ Universal access to anti-malarial bed nets for all households in regions of malaria transmission. †¢ Access to safe drinking water and sanitation. †¢ One-half kilometer of paved roads for every thousand population. †¢ Access to modern cooking fuels and improved cooking stoves to decrease indoor air pollution. He states extreme poverty (a lack of access to basic needs) is very different from relative poverty (occupying a place at the bottom of the ladder of income distribution) within rich countries, and goes through a more detailed approach of implementing the six steps. He points out that not all donor assistance is for development. Much is used for emergency relief, care for resettlement of refugees, geopolitical support of particular governments, and help for middle-income countries that have largely ended extreme poverty in their country. Also, only a small portion of development aid actually helps to finance the intervention package. Much of it goes for technical assistance which is not part of the MDG numbers. He spends time on the question, â€Å"Can the USA afford the .7% of their GNP?† He responds with a deafening â€Å"Yes!† He does this in multiple ways, one of which is to show that the increase is only .55%, which would be hardly noticed in the US’s average 1.9% increase year-by-year of its GNP. Chapter Sixteen–Myths and Magic Bullets This is an interesting chapter because Sachs shoots down commonly held beliefs concerning the causes and solutions for poverty. He uses Africa as his case to do so:. †¢ Contrary to popular conception, Africa has not received great amounts of aid. They receive $30 per person per year but only $12 of that actually went to be used in development in Africa. $5 went to consultants of donor countries, $3 went to food and emergency relief, $4 for servicing Africa’s debt and $5 for debt relief. In reality, in 2002, only six cents per person went to development. †¢ Corruption is the problem which leads to poor governance. By any standard of measure Africa’s governance is low, but not due to corruption. African countries’ governance is no different than other poor countries in the rest of the world. Governance improves as the people become more literate and more affluent. Secondly, a more affluent country can afford to invest more in governance. †¢ There is a democracy deficit. This is also not true. In 2003, 11 countries in Africa were considered free, with 20 more partially free, and 16 not free. This is the same as is found in other regions of the world. Democracy does not translate into faster economic growth. †¢ Lack of modern values. Again, this is also false. Virtually every society that was once poor has been castigated for being unworthy until its citizens became rich and then their new wealth was explained by their industriousness. He traces this trend in multiple countries. One major factor that does cause change is the change in women’s position in society as their economic situation improves, which accelerates the growth. †¢ The need for economic freedom is not fully true. Generally market societies out perform centrally planned economies. This leads to the thought that all is needed is that the people must have the will to liberalize and privatize which is too simplistic. He shows that there is no correlation between the Economic Freedom Index and annual growth rate of GDP. †¢ The single idea of Mystery of Capital put forth by Hernando de Soto which relates to the security of private property including the ability to borrow against it is also incorrect. Most poor hold their assets such as housing and land. †¢ There is a shortfall of morals which is thought to be the main cause of HIV in Africa. A study shows that Africa men are no different in the average number of sexual partners they have than any other part of the world. â₠¬ ¢ Saving children only to become hungry adults leads to population explosion. Actually it has been shown that the best way to reduce the fertility rate is to increase the economic status. In all parts of the world (except the Middle East) where the fertility rate is over 5 children, those countries are the poorest ones. As children survive, the parents feel less of a need to have more children which is a result of improved economic conditions. †¢ A rising tide lifts all boats. This means extreme poverty will take care of itself because economic development will pull all countries along to improvement. A rising improvement does not reach the hinder lands or mountain tops. †¢ Nature red in tooth and claw means that economic improvement is based on survival of the fittest and those who cannot compete fall behind. This is a Darwin thought which seems to still prevail throughout the world. Competition and struggle are but one side of the coin which has the other side of trust , cooperation, and collective action. He rejects the doomsayers who saying that ending poverty is impossible. He believes he has identified specific interventions that are needed as well as found ways to plan and implement them at an affordable rate. Chapter Seventeen–Why We Should Do It There are several fallacies which affect the USA’s giving: †¢ The American public greatly overestimates the amount of federal funds spent on foreign aid. The US public believes that the government is providing massive amounts of aid. A 2001 survey by the University of Maryland showed that people felt that US aid accounted for 20% of the federal budget versus the actual of .15%. That is 24 times smaller than the actual figure. †¢ The American public believes that the US military can achieve security for Americans in the absence of a stable world. This has been proven untrue especially with 9/11. †¢ There is a fallacy in belief that there is a war of cultures. For many, this relates to Biblical prophesy of Armageddon and end times. The problem in the US is not opposition to increased foreign aid but a lack of political leadership to inform the public how little the US does supply, and then asking the US public to supply more. Hard evidence has established a strong linkage between extreme poverty abroad and threats to national security. As a general proposition, economic failure (an economy stuck in a poverty trap, banking crisis, debt default or hyper-inflation) often leads to a state failure. A CIA Task force looked at state failures between 1954 and 1994 and found that the following three factors were most significant in state failure: †¢ Very high infant mortality rate suggested that overall low levels of material well-being are a significant factor in state failure. †¢ Openness of the economy showed the more economic linkages a country had with the rest of the world, the lower chance of state failure. †¢ Democratic countries showed fewer propensities to state failure than authoritarian regimes. He then reviews what the US government has committed to since 9/11: †¢ Provide resources to aid countries that have met national reform. †¢ Improve effectiveness of the World Bank and other development banks in raising living standards. †¢ Insist on measurable results to ensure that development assistance is actually making a difference in the lives of the world’s poor. †¢ Increase the amount of development assistance that is provided in the form of grants, not loans. †¢ Since trade and investment are the real engines of economic growth, open societies to commerce and investment. †¢ Secure public health. †¢ Emphasize education. †¢ Continue to aid agricultural development. In reality, little progress has been done by the US to the accomplishment of these goals. But he does spend time discussing where plans were established and that funds were flowing where massive amounts of aid were provided by the USA: †¢ End of World War II with the Marshall Plan which revitalized Europe and Japan. †¢ Jubilee 2000 Drop the Debt Campaign started slow but ended up with large amount of national debt being cancelled in the poorest of countries. †¢ The Emergency Plan for HIV is providing $15 billion to fight this pandemic. The bottom line of this chapter is, â€Å"OK, USA and other rich countries, you are saying good things, now step-up to the plate and do what you have agreed to do.† Chapter Eighteen–Our Generation’s Challenge Our generation is heir to two and a half centuries of economic progress. We can realistically envision a world without extreme poverty by the year 2025 because of technological progress which enables us to meet basic needs on a global scale. We can also achieve a margin above basic needs unprecedented in history. Until the Industrial Revolution, humanity had known only unending struggles against famine, pandemic disease, and extreme poverty–all compounded by cycles of war, and political despotism. At the same time, Enlightenment thinkers began to envision the possibility of sustained social progress in which science and technology could be harnessed to achieve sustained improvements in the organization of social, political, and economic life. He proposes four thinkers which led this movement: †¢ Thomas Jefferson and other founders of the American Republic led the thought that political institutions could be fashioned consciously to meet the needs of society through a human-made political system. †¢ Adam Smith believed that the economic system could similarly be shaped to meet human need and his economic design runs parallel to Jefferson’s political designs. †¢ Immanuel Kant called for an appropriate global system of governance to end the age-old scourge of war. †¢ Science and technology, fueled by human reason can be a sustained force for social improvement and human betterment led by Francis Bacon and Marie-Jean-Antoine Condorcet. Condorcet put much emphasis on public education to accomplish the goals. One of the most abiding commitments of the Enlightenment was the idea that social progress should be universal and not restricted to a corner of Western Europe. He said now it is our generation’s turn to help foster the following: †¢ Political systems that promote human well-being †¢ Economic systems that spread the benefits of science, technology, and division of labor to all parts of the world. †¢ International cooperation in order to secure a perpetual peace. †¢ Science and technology, grounded in human rationality, to fuel the continued prospects for improving the human condition. He then spends three or four pages discussing the good and bad points of the Anti-globalization Movement which is taking place. He also spends time discussing three movements which made these kind of changes in the world in their time: †¢ The end of Slavery †¢ The end of Colonization †¢ The Civil Rights and Anti-Apartheid Movement He closes with discussing the next steps which are: †¢ Commit to ending poverty †¢ Adopt a plan of action built around the Millennium Development Goals †¢ Raise the voice of the poor †¢ Redeem the role of the United States in the world †¢ Rescue the IMF and World Bank †¢ Strengthen the United Nations †¢ Harness global science †¢ Promote sustainable development †¢ Make a personal commitment to become involved Summary This is an interesting book with new perspectives for me, and which is beginning to be taken seriously by the world. I believe, as stated earlier, that MAI’s role is on-the-ground solutions for ending poverty through CHE which is spelled out in Chapter 12. But, as also noted, we can do it at a far lower cost than he estimates because of our commitment to empowering people to do things on their own and primarily with their own funds.